- Related Topics:
- nuclear chain reaction
- boosting
- fission barrier
- reproduction factor
- scission point
- On the Web:
- EPJ Web of Conferences - Energy from nuclear fission (PDF) (May 24, 2025)
A pictorial representation of the sequence of events in the fission of a heavy nucleus is given in Figure 3. The approximate time elapse between stages of the process is indicated at the bottom of the Figure.
The phenomenology of fission
When a heavy nucleus undergoes fission, a variety of fragment pairs may be formed, depending on the distribution of neutrons and protons between the fragments. This leads to probability distribution of both mass and nuclear charge for the fragments. The probability of formation of a particular fragment is called its fission yield and is expressed as the percentage of fissions leading to it.
The separated fragments experience a large Coulomb repulsion due to their nuclear charges, and they recoil from each other with kinetic energies determined by the fragment charges and the distance between the charge centres at the time of scission. Variations in these parameters lead to a distribution of kinetic energies, even for the same mass split.
The initial velocities of the recoiling fragments are too fast for the outer (atomic) electrons of the fissioning atom to keep pace, and many of them are stripped away. Thus, the nuclear charge of the fragment is not fully neutralized by the atomic electrons, and the fission fragments fly apart as highly charged atoms. As the nucleus of the fragment adjusts from its deformed shape to a more stable configuration, the deformation energy (i.e., the energy required to deform it) is recovered and converted into internal excitation energy, and neutrons and prompt gamma rays (an energetic form of electromagnetic radiation given off nearly coincident with the fission event) may be evaporated from the moving fragment. The fast-moving, highly charged atom collides with the atoms of the medium through which it is moving, and its kinetic energy is transferred to ionization and heating of the medium as it slows down and comes to rest. The range of fission fragments in air is only a few centimetres.
During the slowing-down process, the charged atom picks up electrons from the medium and becomes neutral by the time it stops. At this stage in the sequence of events, the atom produced is called a fission product to distinguish it from the initial fission fragment formed at scission. Since a few neutrons may have been lost in the transition from fission fragment to fission product, the two may not have the same mass number. The fission product is still not a stable species but is radioactive, and it finally reaches stability by undergoing a series of beta decays, which may vary over a time scale of fractions of a second to many years. The beta emission consists of electrons and antineutrinos, often accompanied by gamma rays and X-rays.
The distributions in mass, charge, and kinetic energy of the fragments have been found to be dependent on the fissioning species as well as on the excitation energy at which the fission act occurs. Many other aspects of fission have been observed, adding to the extensive phenomenology of the process and providing an intriguing set of problems for interpretation. These include the systematics of fission cross sections (a measure of the probability for fission to occur); the variation of the number of prompt neutrons (see below) emitted as a function of the fissioning species and the particular fragment mass split; the angular distribution of the fragments with respect to the direction of the beam of particles inducing fission; the systematics of spontaneous fission half-lives; the occurrence of spontaneous fission isomers (excited states of the nucleus); the emission of light particles (hydrogen-3, helium-3, helium-4, etc.) in small but significant numbers in some fission events; the presence of delayed neutron emitters among the fission products; the time scale on which the various stages of the process take place; and the distribution of the energy release in fission among the particles and radiations produced.
A detailed discussion of all of these facets of fission and how the data were obtained is not possible here, but a few of them are treated to provide some insight into this field of study and a taste of its fascination.
Fission fragment mass distributions
The distribution of the fragment masses formed in fission is one of the most striking features of the process. It is dependent on the mass of the fissioning nucleus and the excitation energy at which the fission occurs. At low excitation energy, the fission of such nuclides as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 is asymmetric; i.e., the fragments are formed in a two-humped probability (or yield) distribution favouring an unequal division in mass. This is illustrated in Figure 4. As will be noted, the light group of fragment masses shifts to higher mass numbers as the mass of the fissioning nucleus increases, whereas the position of the heavy group remains nearly stationary. As the excitation energy of the fission increases, the probability for a symmetric mass split increases, while that for asymmetric division decreases. Thus, the valley between the two peaks increases in probability (yield of formation), and at high excitations the mass distribution becomes single-humped, with the maximum yield at symmetry (see ). Radium isotopes show interesting triple-humped mass distributions, and nuclides lighter than radium show a single-humped, symmetric mass distribution. (These nuclides, however, require a relatively high activation energy to undergo fission.) For very heavy nuclei in the region of fermium-260, the mass-yield curve becomes symmetric (single-humped) even for spontaneous fission, and the kinetic energies of the fragments are unusually high. An understanding of these mass distributions has been one of the major puzzles of fission, and a complete theoretical interpretation is still lacking, albeit much progress has been made (see below).
Fission decay chains and charge distribution
In order to maintain stability, the neutron-to-proton (n/p) ratio in nuclei must increase with increasing proton number. The ratio remains at unity up to the element calcium, with 20 protons. It then gradually increases until it reaches a value of about 1.5 for the heaviest elements. When a heavy nucleus fissions, a few neutrons are emitted; however, this still leaves too high an n/p ratio in the fission fragments to be consistent with stability for them. They undergo radioactive decay and reach stability by successive conversions of neutrons to protons with the emission of a negative electron (called a beta particle, β-) and an antineutrino. The mass number of the nucleus remains the same, but the nuclear charge (atomic number) increases by one, and a new element is formed for each such conversion. The successive beta decays constitute an isobaric, fission-product decay chain for each mass number. The half-lives for the decay of the radioactive species generally increase as they approach the stable isobar of the chain. (Species of the same element characterized by the same nuclear charge, Z [number of protons], but differing in their number of neutrons [and therefore in mass number A] are called isotopes. Species that have the same mass number, A, but differ in Z are known as isobars.)
For a typical mass split in the neutron-induced fission of uranium-235, the complementary fission-product masses of 93 and 141 may be formed following the emission of two neutrons from the initial fragments. The division of charge (i.e., protons) between the fragments represents an important parameter in the fission process. Thus, for the mass numbers 93 and 141, the following isobaric fission-product decay chains would be formed (the half-lives for the beta-decay processes are indicated above the arrows):
(The left subscript on the element symbol denotes Z, while the superscript denotes A.) The 92 protons of the uranium nucleus must be conserved, and complementary fission-product pairs—such as krypton-36 with barium-56, rubidium-37 with cesium-55, or strontium-38 with xenon-54—would be possible.
The percentage of fissions in which a particular nuclide is formed as a primary fission product (i.e., as the direct descendant of an initial fragment following its de-excitation) is called the independent yield of that product. The total yield for any nuclide in the isobaric decay chain is the sum of its independent yield and the independent yields of all of its precursors in the chain. The total yield for the entire chain is called the cumulative yield for that mass number.
Extensive radiochemical investigations have suggested that the most probable charge division is one that is displaced from stability about the same distance in both chains. This empirical observation is called the equal charge displacement (ECD) hypothesis, and it has been confirmed by several physical measurements. In the above example the ECD would predict the most probable charges at about rubidium-37 and cesium-55. A strong shell effect modifies the ECD expectations for fragments having 50 protons. The dispersion of the charge formation probability about the most probable charge (Zp) is rather narrow and approximately Gaussian in shape and is nearly independent of the mass split as well as of the fissioning species. The most probable charge for an isobaric chain is a useful concept in the description of the charge dispersion, and it need not have an integral value. As the energy of fission increases, the charge division tends toward maintaining the n/p ratio in the fragments the same as that in the fissioning nucleus. This is referred to as an unchanged charge distribution.
Prompt neutrons in fission
The average number of neutrons emitted per fission (represented by the symbol v̄) varies with the fissioning nucleus. It is about 2.0 for the spontaneous fission of uranium-238 and 4.0 for that of fermium-257. In the thermal-neutron induced fission of uranium-235, v̄= 2.4. The actual number of neutrons emitted, however, varies with each fission event, depending on the mass split. Although there is still controversy regarding the number of neutrons emitted at the instant of scission, it is generally agreed that most of the neutrons are given off by the recoiling fission fragments soon after scission occurs. The number of neutrons emitted from each fragment depends on the amount of energy the fragment possesses. The energy can be in the form of internal excitation (heat) energy or stored as energy of deformation of the fragment to be released when the fragment returns to its stable equilibrium shape.
Delayed neutrons in fission
A few of the fission products have beta-decay energies that exceed the binding energy of a neutron in the daughter nucleus. This is likely to happen when the daughter nucleus contains one or two neutrons more than a closed shell of 50 or 82 neutrons, since these “extra” neutrons are more loosely bound. The beta decay of the precursor may take place to an excited state of the daughter from which a neutron is emitted. The neutron emission is “delayed” by the beta-decay half-life of the precursor. Six such delayed neutron emitters have been identified, with half-lives varying from about 0.5 to 56 seconds. The yield of the delayed neutrons is only about 1 percent of that of the prompt neutrons, but they are very important for the control of the chain reaction in a nuclear reactor.
Energy release in fission
The total energy release in a fission event may be calculated from the difference in the rest masses of the reactants (e.g., 235U + n) and the final stable products (e.g., 93Nb + 141Pr + 2n). The energy equivalent of this mass difference is given by the Einstein relation, E = mc2. The total energy release depends on the mass split, but a typical fission event would have the total energy release distributed approximately as follows for the major components in the thermal neutron-induced fission of uranium-235:
(The energy release from the capture of the prompt neutrons depends on how they are finally stopped, and some will escape the core of a nuclear reactor.)
This energy is released on a time scale of about 10-12 second and is called the prompt energy release. It is largely converted to heat within an operating reactor and is used for power generation. Also, there is a delayed release of energy from the radioactive decay of the fission products varying in half-life from fractions of a second to many years. The shorter-lived species decay in the reactor, and their energy adds to the heat generated; however, the longer-lived species remain radioactive and pose a problem in the handling and disposition of the reactor fuel elements when they need to be replaced. The antineutrinos that accompany the beta decay of the fission products are unreactive, and their kinetic energy (about 10 MeV per fission) is not recovered. Overall, about 200 MeV of energy per fission may be recovered for power applications.
