Recovery of oil from oil shale

Minimum organic requirement

As is stated above (see Organic content), the organic matter present in oil shale is principally kerogen; no oil and little extractable bitumen is naturally present in oil shale. The kerogen found in oil shale is not distinct from the kerogen of petroleum source rocks—that is, the material from which petroleum was generated under conditions of heat and pressure over long periods of geologic time. To some extent the pyrolysis process for extracting oil from oil shale is comparable to the natural processes that generated conventional crude oil.

In order to be of commercial interest, oil shale must contain a large amount of organic matter—significantly larger than the 2 percent or more of organic carbon commonly found in the source rock from which conventional oil or gas may be generated. At the very least, the organic matter in a prospective oil shale must provide more energy than is required to process the shale. For instance, under controlled laboratory conditions, if the kerogen content of the shale is less than about 3 percent by weight, then its total calorific value will be needed simply to heat the rock to surface retorting temperatures and react the kerogen to oil and gas. Commercial conditions are far less efficient: heat is lost at various parts of the process, and other energy inputs are required for handling, upgrading, and so on. Consequently, the organic content of commercial-grade oil shales must be considerably higher than 3 percent.

In commercial practice, the actual energy recoverable from the shale—and, hence, the specific break-even point in organic content—is strongly dependent upon properties of the oil shale as well as features of the process. For example, the organic matter content of prospective western and eastern U.S. oil shale is roughly the same (7.5–15 percent). However, the organic matter in western shale is “richer” in hydrogen than eastern shale, yielding 20 to 40 gallons of oil per short ton (84 to 168 litres per metric ton) compared with only 10 to 15 gallons per short ton (42 to 63 litres per metric ton) in the “leaner” eastern shale. At the same time, western oil is relatively high in paraffinic compounds, so that, with upgrading, it becomes an excellent refinery feedstock that is well suited to large yields of diesel and jet fuel. Eastern shale oil, on the other hand, contains more aromatic compounds and, when upgraded, is better suited as a feed for catalytic crackers in the production of gasoline. Here the different end-products will determine the ultimate economic value of producing oil from either shale, so that the two different deposits may well have different cutoff grades.

Economic conditions elsewhere in the world may make it feasible to recover oil from leaner deposits than those found in the United States. In all cases, the overall energy balance is a critical determinant of whether shale oil production can proceed. Much research focuses on better defining this balance as well as looking for ways to improve it.

Pyrolysis

The technology for producing oil from oil shale is based on pyrolysis of the rock. Applied heat breaks the various chemical bonds of the kerogen macromolecules, liberating small molecules of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons as well as nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen compounds. Pyrolysis can be done aboveground (ex situ) in retorts, which are specially designed vessels that allow rapid heating of the rock in an oxygen-free environment. Under such conditions the pyrolytic reactions occur at temperatures in the range of 480–550 °C (900–1,020 °F). Surface retort hydrocarbon products typically contain relatively high proportions of olefins and diolefins, as well as sulfur and nitrogen compounds.

Pyrolysis can also be done by heating the rock underground (in situ). Because rock is an excellent insulator, heating rock formations underground in order to maximize production is a slow process, involving months to years. Under conditions of slow heating, the pyrolytic reactions occur at lower temperatures, roughly 325–400 °C (620–750 °F), and produce a lighter oil and a higher gas-to-oil ratio.

A third approach involves the creation of large surface capsules of tailored earth materials containing mined oil shale. A pit is excavated, lined with some type of engineered material to prevent escape of the products, and then filled with oil shale. At intervals in the fill, heating and drainage pipes and sensors are laid out, and the filled capsule is capped with impermeable material and soil. Hot gases are circulated through the pipes, and the products are extracted mainly as a vapour. This hybrid approach produces oil and gas similar to the in situ processes but in a shorter time.

Many specific pyrolytic processes have been developed. Whether the technologies are applied aboveground or underground, all of them fall into a relatively small number of basic methods based on their heating approach. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages.

• Internal-combustion approaches burn either gases or a portion of the shale to generate the heat for pyrolysis. This heat is transferred to the ore by the hot gas. Internal-combustion technologies have been designed for use in aboveground retorts as well as in situ. Three technologies that use this approach are the Kiviter process, employed in Estonia; the Fushun process of China; and the Paraho Direct process, designed in the United States.
• Hot-recycled-solids methods circulate either burned shale or an inert material as the heat carrier. Spent shale, which has had oil and gas removed from it, still has energy available in the carbon-rich char that is left behind on the mineral ash. Some technology options can burn this residual carbon to provide the heat for the process, which increases the effective utilization of the resource. The various hot-recycled-solids processes are applied only aboveground; they include the Estonian Galoter and Enefit 280 processes and the Canadian Alberta Taciuk Process.
• Methods that use conduction through a wall provide heat electrically or by burning a fuel outside the retort wall. They are applied both aboveground and in situ. The old Pumpherston process, used in Scotland beginning in 1862, involved external heating through the wall of the retort. This process was widely employed with various refinements introduced later in continental Europe. Modern technologies employing conduction through a wall are the Combustion Resources and Ecoshale In-Capsule processes, both designed in the United States.
• Externally generated hot gas methods inject a remotely heated gas into the retort zone. This has been done both aboveground and in situ, though the most prominent technologies are the Brazilian Petrosix process and the American Paraho Indirect process, both employed in aboveground retorts.
• Reactive fluids work in much the same manner as externally heated gas, but with a chemically reactive fluid such as high-pressure hydrogen. Hydrogen also partly upgrades the oil by removing sulfur and stabilizing reactive hydrocarbons. Reactive fluid technologies have been designed for aboveground and in situ use.
• Volumetric heating methods operate in much the same way as a microwave oven, emitting electromagnetic radiation or electric current that excites molecules in the rock and generates heat. Volumetric heating processes have been designed only for in situ use.