Nucleophilic substitution

Nucleophilic substitution, which can be represented by the following general equation, permits the halogen to be replaced by oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, or another carbon.

The source of the negatively charged nucleophile Y⁻ is normally an ionic sodium or a potassium salt (Na⁺Y⁻or K⁺Y⁻). A specific example of a nucleophilic substitution is the reaction of sodium hydroxide and benzyl chloride:

The relative order of alkyl halide reactivity is governed by the carbon-halogen bond strength. Alkyl iodides have the weakest carbon-halogen bond and react at the fastest rate. Alkyl fluorides have the strongest carbon-halogen bond and react so slowly as to rarely undergo nucleophilic substitutions.

Various families of organic compounds can be prepared by the appropriate choice of nucleophile. These include ethers (ROR′), esters (RCOOR′), nitriles (RCN), and sulfides (RSR′):

Alkyl fluorides are normally prepared by fluoride acting as a nucleophile toward an alkyl chloride, bromide, or iodide—e.g., NaF + RX → RF + NaX. While the reaction is reversible in principle, the greater strength of the carbon-fluorine bond causes the alkyl fluoride to predominate over the alkyl chloride, bromide, or iodide. Alkyl iodides can be prepared from alkyl chlorides and alkyl bromides by reaction with a solution of sodium iodide (NaI) in acetone (CH₃COCH₃). In this case the reaction proceeds in the direction shown because neither sodium chloride (NaCl) nor sodium bromide (NaBr) is soluble in acetone; precipitation of sodium chloride or sodium bromide from the reaction mixture causes the position of equilibrium to shift to the right.

Chemists generally agree that the reactions of alkyl halides described to this point take place through a mechanism in which the nucleophile approaches the alkyl halide from the side opposite the bond to the leaving group. Substitution occurs in a single step by way of a transition state (a high-energy, unstable, nonisolable structure) in which the carbon being attacked is partially bonded to both the nucleophile and the leaving group. Any one-step process involving two species is defined as bimolecular, and this reaction mechanism is termed S_N2 (substitution-nucleophilic-bimolecular).

The rate of bimolecular nucleophilic substitution strongly depends on the structure of the alkyl halide and is believed to be governed by the degree of crowding at the carbon undergoing nucleophilic attack. Methyl halides (CH₃X) react at the fastest rate. Primary alkyl halides (RCH₂X) react faster than secondary alkyl halides (RR′CHX), which in turn react faster than tertiary alkyl halides (RR′R″CX). When the substituents R, R′, and R″ are small—e.g., R = R′ = R″ = H in CH₃X—the transition state is not very crowded, and the nucleophile displaces the leaving group from carbon rapidly. Successive replacement of R, R′, and R″ by alkyl groups increasingly hinders the approach of the nucleophile to carbon, makes the transition state more crowded, and slows the rate. The blocking of access to a reactive site by nearby groups is referred to as steric hindrance.

Tertiary alkyl halides are so sterically hindered that, when they undergo nucleophilic substitution, they do so by a mechanism other than S_N2. A two-step mechanism is believed to be followed, the first step of which is slower than the second and determines the overall rate of the reaction.

Because the rate-determining (slow) step involves only one molecule, the mechanism is described as unimolecular, and the term S_N1 (substitution-nucleophilic-unimolecular) is applied. The species formed in the slow step contains a positively charged, electron-deficient carbon and is called a carbocation. Carbocations are unstable and react rapidly with substances such as nucleophiles that have unshared electrons available for bond formation.

Elimination

When the attacking species is a strong base such as hydroxide (⁻OH) or alkoxide (⁻OR), nucleophilic substitutions carried out for synthetic objectives are practical only when the alkyl halide is primary. The principal reaction observed when a strong base reacts with a secondary or tertiary alkyl halide is elimination, as in the attack of sodium methoxide on 2-chloro-2-methylpropane.

Elimination competes with substitution because the negatively charged ion, in this case methoxide (⁻OCH₃), can either attack carbon (act as a nucleophile) or remove a proton (act as a base). The bonding changes that accompany elimination are often represented using curved-arrow notation to track the movement of electron pairs.

Elimination of alkyl halides in the manner described is believed to occur in a single step and is given the mechanistic symbol E2, which stands for elimination-bimolecular. Elimination always accompanies nucleophilic substitution and is the chief limitation on efficient synthetic applications of nucleophilic substitution. By using a sufficiently strong base, it is usually possible to cause elimination to predominate over substitution, and dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides by the E2 mechanism is one of the main methods by which alkenes are prepared (see hydrocarbon).

Preparation of Grignard reagents

Many metals, especially those of Groups 1 and 2, reduce alkyl halides, converting the carbon-halogen bond to a carbon-metal bond. (Substances that contain a carbon-metal bond are referred to as organometallic compounds.) The most generally useful organometallic compounds are those of magnesium (Mg), formulated as alkylmagnesium halides, RMgX.

Organomagnesium compounds, called Grignard reagents, are versatile in synthetic organic chemistry. These highly reactive substances are normally prepared and stored in inert solvents, especially diethyl ether (CH₃CH₂OCH₂CH₃), until used. The preparation of Grignard reagents is of broad scope. The organohalogen compound may be an alkyl, alkenyl, or aryl halide; if it is an alkyl halide, it may be primary, secondary, or tertiary. It may be an iodide (most reactive toward reduction by magnesium), bromide, or chloride. Even alkyl fluorides, which normally do not react with magnesium, can be converted to Grignard reagents by using a specially prepared highly reactive form of the metal.

The most useful reaction of Grignard reagents is their reaction with aldehydes and ketones to form alcohols. Grignard reagents react with formaldehyde to give primary alcohols having one more carbon atom than the alkyl halide from which the Grignard reagent was derived. Aldehydes give secondary alcohols, while ketones yield tertiary alcohols. Alcohols can also be prepared by the reaction of Grignard reagents with epoxides or esters (for more information about these reactions, see alcohol and phenol).