Characteristically, vascular plants grow and develop through the activity of organ-forming regions, the growing points. The mechanical support and additional conductive pathways needed by increased bulk are provided by the enlargement of the older parts of the shoot and root axes. New cells are added through the activity of special tissues called meristems, the cells of which are small, intensely active metabolically, and densely packed with organelles and membranes, but usually lacking the fluid-filled sacs called vacuoles. Meristems may be classified according to their location in the plant and their special functions. One important distinction is between persistent meristems, typified by those of the growing points, and meristems with a limited life, those associated with organs, such as the leaf, of determinate growth. The regions of rapid cell division at the tips (apices) of the stem and the root are terminal meristems. In the stem apex, the uppermost part is the promeristem, below which is a zone of transversely oriented early cell walls, the file, or rib, meristem. The procambium is a meristematic tissue concerned with providing the primary tissues of the vascular system; the cambium proper is the continuous cylinder of meristematic cells responsible for producing the new vascular tissues in mature stems and roots. The cork cambium, or phellogen, produces the protective outer layers of the bark.

Among meristems of limited existence is the marginal, or plate, meristem responsible for the increase in surface area of a leaf; it contributes new cells mainly in one plane. Another type of meristem of limited life is called intercalary; it is responsible for the extension of some stems (as in the grasses) by the addition of new tissues remote from the growing points.

The number of dividing cells in persistent meristems remains roughly constant, with one of the daughter cells of each division remaining meristematic and the other differentiating as a component of a developing organ. The geometrical arrangements in the particular organ determine the way in which this occurs, but in general the consequence is that the meristem is continuously moving away from the maturing tissue as growth continues. It remains, therefore, a localized zone of specialized tissue, never becoming diluted by the interposition of expanding or differentiating cells. In organs such as leaves, flowers, and fruits, in which the growth is determinate, the divisions of meristematic cells become more widely scattered, and the frequency progressively falls as the proportion of the daughter cells that differentiate increases. Ultimately, at maturity, no localized meristem remains.

The contribution of cells and tissues

The two major factors determining the forms of plant tissues and organs are the orientation of the planes of cell division and the shapes assumed by the cells as they enlarge. Clearly, if the division planes in a cell mass are randomly oriented and individual cells expand uniformly, the tissue will enlarge as a sphere. On the other hand, if cell division planes are oriented regularly or the expansion of individual cells is directional, the tissue can assume any of a number of shapes. In a stem, for example, the cell division planes of the promeristem are oriented at various angles to the stem axis, so that new cells produced contribute to both width and length. Below this region, in the rib meristem, the proportion of divisions with the cell plate at right angles to the axis increases, so that the cells tend to be oriented in files. The cells in these files expand vertically more than they do horizontally, and, accordingly, the stem develops as a cylinder.

The factors that control the orientation of cell division planes in meristems are largely unknown. Cell interactions, however, are presumed to coordinate the distribution and orientation of the divisions. In each cell microtubules in the cytoplasm help to orient the nucleus before it divides. Then, at the time of the division, other microtubules arranged in a spindle-shaped figure (the mitotic spindle) are involved in separating the daughter chromosomes and moving them to opposite ends of the parent cell. Thereafter, the residual part of the spindle helps to locate the plate that separates the two daughter cells. Microtubules are also concerned in determining the direction of growth in expanding cells, since they appear to influence the construction of the cell wall by controlling the way cellulose is laid down in it.

Although change in shape is a form of cell differentiation, the term in the more general sense refers to a change in function, usually accompanied by specialization and the loss of the capacity for further division. Biochemical differentiation often involves a change in the character of the cell organelles—as when a generalized potential pigment body (proplastid) matures as a chloroplast, a chlorophyll-containing plastid. But it may also involve structural changes at a subcellular level, as when organelles change their character in cells engaged in intense metabolic activity.

The differentiation of plant cells for the movement of materials and the provision of mechanical support or protection invariably depends upon modification of the walls. This usually entails the accretion of new kinds of wall materials, such as lignin in woody tissue and cutin and suberin in epidermal tissues and cork. The accompanying structural changes must be controlled, for the wall materials are not applied at random but according to a pattern appropriate to the particular cell or tissue. The development of patterns during cell-wall growth depends not only on the cytoplasmic microtubules, as in the construction of the cells that will give rise to the water-conducting vessels (xylem elements), but also on cytoplasmic membranes, as in the formation of sievelike end walls (sieve plates) in the cells that will give rise to food-conducting vessels (phloem elements).

The differentiation of xylem culminates in the death of the participating cells, and the vessels are formed of chains of empty walls. This is an example of “programmed death,” not an uncommon phenomenon in plant and animal development.