preimplantation genetic diagnosis

preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), the testing of embryos produced through in vitro fertilization (IVF) for genetic defects, in which testing is carried out prior to the implantation of the fertilized egg within the uterus. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) also may be performed on eggs prior to fertilization. PGD differs from prenatal genetic diagnosis, in which testing is carried out in utero. PGD is an important accessory to assisted reproductive technologies, since it can eliminate the risk of later elective pregnancy termination for reasons of debilitating inherited genetic disease. There are multiple different genetic analyses used in PGD; examples include polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which can be used to determine the sex of the embryo and to detect single-gene disorders, and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), which are used to detect chromosomal defects.

Historical background

PGD was pioneered by American embryologist and geneticist Alan Handyside, who first used the approach in 1989 to test for the presence of the gene defects that cause cystic fibrosis, an X-linked disease (caused by a genetic mutation carried on the X chromosome). The following year, Handyside carried out biopsies on IVF embryos, removing one or two cells from each embryo. The biopsy procedure was performed three days after fertilization. Of three couples who volunteered for the procedure, one woman had two embryos that were fertilized normally and were negative for the cystic fibrosis gene. The woman underwent an embryo transfer with the normal embryo and gave birth to a healthy female who was free of cystic fibrosis and was not a carrier of the gene defects. The results of the trial proved that single-gene diseases could be identified prior to implantation, marking an important development for families who are affected by inherited genetic mutations.

Applications of PGD

PGD can be used for couples who have a family history of a single-gene disorder that places the fetus at high risk of inheriting that condition. Such single-gene disorders include those that are autosomal dominant (a mutation inherited from one parent causes disease), autosomal recessive (the same mutation inherited from both parents causes disease), X-linked dominant (a mutation on an X chromosome from only one parent causes disease), X-linked recessive (the same mutation on the X chromosome from both parents causes disease), Y-linked (the mutation is inherited on the Y chromosome from the father), and mitochondrial disorders (the mutation occurs in mitochondrial DNA and is inherited from the mother). PGD commonly is used to screen for autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked abnormalities. It is less commonly used to screen for mitochondrial disorders, owing in large part to the unpredictable nature of mitochondrial heteroplasmy, in which the cell has some mitochondria that carry the mutation and other mitochondria that do not. The proportion of mutant mitochondria determines both disease expression (whether it will affect offspring) and disease severity.

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in vitro fertilization: Preimplantation genetic diagnosis

Women aged 35 or older are considered to be of advanced maternal age, which raises the risk of transmitting a chromosomal disorder to the offspring. Both aneuploidy (abnormal chromosome number) and chromosomal translocation (part of one chromosome is transferred to another) can be detected by methods such as FISH and CGH.

Ethical considerations

PGD has been at the centre of ethical debate since its inception. Although the procedure can prevent later pregnancy termination, it has been known to produce false positives (in which a normal embryo is discarded) and false negatives (in which the embryo is transferred to the uterus and later develops signs of a genetic disorder). Other ethical concerns have been raised when parents want testing but do not want to know their own carrier status. Other issues have been raised with sex selection; in some countries PGD has been used specifically to obtain the “more desired” male child. In the late 1990s PGD was developed to screen for certain late-onset disorders with hereditary predisposition. Testing for potentially life-threatening diseases that may or may not appear in adulthood has created considerable controversy. There is also debate about using PGD to eliminate individuals with certain disabilities, such as deafness. Other ethical debate concerned the exclusive use of the technique by only those who could afford it.

In some countries cases for PGD are first reviewed by experts, who take into consideration the specific genetic disease and the seriousness of the condition and then make recommendations as to whether the procedure should be approved. The Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis International Society was formed in 2002 to provide multidisciplinary research and education in the PGD arena and to advance the science of PGD.