Some enzymes help to break down large nutrient molecules, such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, into smaller molecules. This process occurs during the digestion of foodstuffs in the stomach and intestines of animals. Other enzymes guide the smaller, broken-down molecules through the intestinal wall into the bloodstream. Still other enzymes promote the formation of large, complex molecules from the small, simple ones to produce cellular constituents. Enzymes are also responsible for numerous other functions, which include the storage and release of energy, the course of reproduction, the processes of respiration, and vision. They are indispensable to life.

Each enzyme is able to promote only one type of chemical reaction. The compounds on which the enzyme acts are called substrates. Enzymes operate in tightly organized metabolic systems called pathways. A seemingly simple biological phenomenon—the contraction of a muscle, for example, or the transmission of a nerve impulse—actually involves a large number of chemical steps in which one or more chemical compounds (substrates) are converted to substances called products; the product of one step in a metabolic pathway serves as the substrate for the succeeding step in the pathway.

The role of enzymes in metabolic pathways can be illustrated diagrammatically. The chemical compound represented by A (see diagram below) is converted to product E in a series of enzyme-catalyzed steps, in which intermediate compounds represented by B, C, and D are formed in succession. They act as substrates for enzymes represented by 2, 3, and 4. Compound A may also be converted by another series of steps, some of which are the same as those in the pathway for the formation of E, to products represented by G and H.

The letters represent chemical compounds; numbers represent enzymes that catalyze individual reactions. The relative heights represent the thermodynamic energy of the compounds (e.g., compound A is more energy-rich than B, B more energy-rich than C). Compounds A, B, etc., change very slowly in the absence of a catalyst but do so rapidly in the presence of catalysts 1, 2, 3, etc.

The regulatory role of enzymes in metabolic pathways can be clarified by using a simple analogy: that between the compounds, represented by letters in the diagram, and a series of connected water reservoirs on a slope. Similarly, the enzymes represented by the numbers are analogous to the valves of the reservoir system. The valves control the flow of water in the reservoir; that is, if only valves 1, 2, 3, and 4 are open, the water in A flows only to E, but, if valves 1, 2, 5, and 6 are open, the water in A flows to G. In a similar manner, if enzymes 1, 2, 3, and 4 in the metabolic pathway are active, product E is formed, and, if enzymes 1, 2, 5, and 6 are active, product G is formed. The activity or lack of activity of the enzymes in the pathway therefore determines the fate of compound A; i.e., it either remains unchanged or is converted to one or more products. In addition, if products are formed, the activity of enzymes 3 and 4 relative to that of enzymes 5 and 6 determines the quantity of product E formed compared with product G.

Both the flow of water and the activity of enzymes obey the laws of thermodynamics; hence, water in reservoir F cannot flow freely to H by opening valve 7, because water cannot flow uphill. If, however, valves 1, 2, 5, and 7 are open, water flows from F to H, because the energy conserved during the downhill flow of water through valves 1, 2, and 5 is sufficient to allow it to force the water up through valve 7. In a similar way, enzymes in the metabolic pathway cannot convert compound F directly to H unless energy is available; enzymes are able to utilize energy from energy-conserving reactions in order to catalyze reactions that require energy. During the enzyme-catalyzed oxidation of carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and water, energy is conserved in the form of an energy-rich compound, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The energy in ATP is utilized during an energy-consuming process such as the enzyme-catalyzed contraction of muscle.

Because the needs of cells and organisms vary, not only the activity but also the synthesis of enzymes must be regulated; e.g., the enzymes responsible for muscular activity in a leg muscle must be activated and inhibited at appropriate times. Some cells do not need certain enzymes; a liver cell, for example, does not need a muscle enzyme. A bacterium does not need enzymes to metabolize substances that are not present in its growth medium. Some enzymes, therefore, are not formed in certain cells, others are synthesized only when required, and still others are found in all cells. The formation and activity of enzymes are regulated not only by genetic mechanisms but also by organic secretions (hormones) from endocrine glands and by nerve impulses. Small molecules also play an important role (see below Enzyme flexibility and allosteric control).

If an enzyme is defective in some respect, disease may occur. The enzymes represented by the numbers 1 to 4 in the diagram must function during the conversion of the starting substance A to the product E. If one step is blocked because an enzyme is unable to function, product E may not be formed; if E is necessary for some vital function, disease results. Many inherited diseases and conditions of humans result from a deficiency of one enzyme. Some of these are listed in the table. Albinism, for example, results from an inherited lack of ability to synthesize the enzyme tyrosinase, which catalyzes one step in the pathway by which the pigment for hair and eye color is formed.