Visual cues
Perhaps the most important perceptual cues of distance and depth depend on so-called binocular disparity. Because the eyes are imbedded at different points in the skull, they receive slightly different images of any given object. The two retinal images of the same object are apparently perceived by the brain as a three-dimensional experience. The degree of disparity between the two retinal images—a phenomenon known as binocular parallax—depends on the difference between the angles at which an object is fixed by the right eye and by the left eye. Thus, in looking at the indicator needle on a pressure gauge, for example, the effects of parallax will cause a person to make slightly different readings when using first the left eye alone and then the right eye. The greater the parallax difference between the two retinal images, the closer the object is perceived to be.
The phenomenon of binocular disparity functions primarily in near space because the angular difference between the two retinal images diminishes when viewing objects at a distance. Visual disparity can still be exploited over greater distances by using optical devices that magnify the parallax distance separately for each eye. Such devices include artillery range-finding devices and old-fashioned, three-dimensional picture viewers called stereoscopes.
In what is called visual movement parallax, distance cues are obtained from retinal changes that depend on the interposition of objects in space. Thus, when the individual moves his head either from side to side or forward and backward, the retinal image of a nearby tree moves more, while that of a distant tree moves less. Unlike binocular disparity, which functions only in binocular vision, movement parallax is especially important for judging distance when only one eye is used (monocular vision).
Another group of visual images, called perspective projections, provide perceptual cues that are independent of monocular or binocular vision. Although estimates of distance—based on such perspective effects as the apparent distant fusing of railroad tracks in a single point—are incompletely understood, they are thought to depend heavily on learning. Such phenomena illustrate the tendency of the individual to integrate perceptions into consistent and invariant wholes. Experiences of perspective may be generated by putting appropriate lines in an oil painting (linear perspective), by gradations in the tint of the paint (colour perspective), and by viewing the surface of the Earth from an airplane (aerial perspective).
Still another group of visual cues of depth and distance consists of apparent differences in object brightness. In experimental studies it is found that the brighter an object appears, the closer it seems to be. Thus, a white card against a dark background seems to recede or to move forward as the level of illumination on the card is experimentally varied. Similar effects can be induced by changing the colour (hue) of an object—e.g., from bright red to dark red.
Auditory cues
Auditory cues for depth perception include sound intensity (loudness), auditory pitch, and the time lapse between visual perception and auditory perception (for example, one hears a distant cannon after seeing the flash and smoke of the explosion).
Changes in pitch also function as depth cues. For example, when a moving object (such as a train or an automobile) emits sound waves (say, from its horn), the pitch of the sound seems to rise when the object is approaching the perceiver, but it seems to fall when it is moving away. This is known as the Doppler effect.
Interrelations among the senses
In humans, the development of the ability to perceive space normally depends on interaction between the senses of sight and touch. Toward the end of the first year, a child starts using the hands to touch and to explore objects. Because sight begins to function more efficiently at a later time, the child’s sense of touch at this stage of development is very sensitive.
The part played by other senses (e.g., hearing) does not appear to be as fundamental in perceptual learning among young children. Without vision or touch, however, most people are seriously hampered in learning a detailed, well-articulated perception of space. Even blind people may find it difficult to understand space with nothing but auditory cues. It is well known that people with full sensory endowment learn to locate the sources of sounds by consulting both their visual and tactile experiences. There are subtler forms of sensory interaction as well; for example, one is more accurate in turning a pointer toward a distant source of sound if the pointer is illuminated at the precise moment the sound is made. This illustrates how one sense can be anchored to another as a means of facilitating spatial perception.
On the basis of tactile perception alone, young monkeys have been taught to discriminate between differently shaped objects (balls, cubes, cones, and cylinders, all about the size of a matchbox). In one experiment, each animal was given two of these objects at a time and was allowed to feel them with its hands without seeing them. The animal’s choice of one specific shape (say, a cube) and its rejection of another (say, a cone) were rewarded with bits of food. When this selective tactile response had been learned, the animal was given the same tasks of selection, this time to be performed visually (by looking at pictures of the same objects). Under these conditions the animal often was able to discriminate the visually presented figures correctly. This phenomenon (called cross-modal learning) may be explained as a transfer effect based on earlier visual-tactile learning.
Success in orientation—in moving about effectively and without accident in everyday pursuits—is highest when environmental information is available through as many senses as possible. Impairments to orientation occur when the range of sensory stimuli that forms the usual basis for the experience of perceptual space is reduced. When visual cues are sharply reduced for sighted people, they complain of disorientation. For example, settings that are familiar by daylight may be completely foreign in darkness.
Apparently, by learning about systematic relationships that exist among a number of simultaneously available stimuli, people can perceive distances more or less correctly. Experiments have shown that the distance (in depth) between selected objects in photographs is most accurately estimated when the objects have been filmed in a richly organized environment—e.g., many people standing at different distances from the camera. Conversely, it is very difficult to make a reliable judgment about the relative depth of two vertical rods when they are presented against a background that lacks other cues.
Factors of constancy
In general, the perceiver controls, sifts, and corrects the considerable range of sensory information offered by isolated local stimuli. The specific nature of these “corrections to conform to reality” will depend on the unique combination of stimuli at any given moment. In this way, spatial perception tends to ensure that a person experiences the continually changing circumstances of the environment with some degree of stability or constancy.
This “realistic” perception, based on an awareness of the real, physical world, is an aspect of so-called object constancy. In the experience of size constancy, for example, within a radius of a few hundred yards from the observer, the size of objects is perceived to remain roughly constant no matter where they are. Constancy of form means that an object is perceived to retain its fixed characteristic shape regardless of variation in the angle at which it is observed; for example, a pencil seen end-on shows only a small circular profile but is still perceived as a pencil. Colour constancy clearly illustrates the way in which the brightness and hue experienced over the surface of an object are determined by direct comparison with other objects; a lump of coal still is perceived as black whether the sun is shining brightly or whether there is a dull, cloudy sky.