Western architecture: Kievan Rus and Russia: There the kokoshniki were introduced in the treatment of the roof. This element, similar in outline to the popular Russian bochka roof (pointed on top, with the sides forming a continuous double curve, concave above and convex below), foreshadowed a tendency to replace the forms of the…

Berlin Marathon: …victories is three, shared by Renata Kokowska of Poland and Uta Pippig of Germany.

Tien Shan: Physiography: Dzhetym, At-Bashy, and the Kakshaal (Kokshaal-Tau) Range, in which Dankova Peak reaches a height of 19,626 feet (5,982 metres).

Kökshetaū, city, northern Kazakhstan. It lies along the southern edge of the Esil (Ishim) Steppe. Kökshetaü was founded in 1824 as an administrative outpost when the Russians extended their control over the Kazaks. It became a district administrative centre in 1868 and a regional centre in 1944,

Japan: The Hideyoshi regime: … of silver, an assessment of kokudaka was made as so many hundred or ten thousand koku of rice. A koku represented the amount of rice consumed by one person in one year (about five bushels); the amount also was used as a standard on which military services were levied in…

Japanese architecture: The Nara period: In 741 he established the kokubunji system, building a monastery and a nunnery in each province, all under a central authority at Nara. In 743 he initiated the planning for construction of that central authority—the Tōdai Temple—and of its central image, a massive bronze statue of the Birushana (Vairocana) Buddha,…

Japanese architecture: The Nara period: In 741 he established the kokubunji system, building a monastery and a nunnery in each province, all under a central authority at Nara. In 743 he initiated the planning for construction of that central authority—the Tōdai Temple—and of its central image, a massive bronze statue of the Birushana (Vairocana) Buddha,…

Kokubunji, city, Tokyo to (metropolis), Honshu, Japan. It lies along the Chūō Main Line, west of Tokyo city. The city first developed around the Kokubun Temple, built in the 8th century for a group of Buddhist nuns, and was an early cultural centre. During the Meiji era (1868–1912), it depended

Japan: The Hideyoshi regime: …relations were now based on kokudaka—i.e., on the actual product of the land. Moreover, this kokudaka now came within the landlord’s grasp in every village, and land taxes were levied on the village as a unit. In addition to this definition of the rights held by the farming population, the…

Kokugaku, (Japanese: “National Learning”), movement in late 17th- and 18th-century Japan that emphasized Japanese classical studies. The movement received impetus from the Neo-Confucianists, who stressed the importance of Chinese Classical literature. The Mito school of scholars, for example,

Japan: Samurai groups and farming villages: …held huge public lands (kokugaryō) and private estates in various provinces and wielded power comparable to that of the bakufu. These shōen were managed by influential resident landlords who had become warriors. They were often the original developers of their districts who became officials of the provincial government and…

Kamo Mabuchi: His chief original work, the Kokuikō, contains a biting rejection of Chinese thought and literature and a hymnal glorification of Japanese antiquity. His writings, collected in 12 volumes, are made up primarily of commentaries on Old Japanese literature.

Tokutomi Sohō: …began a highly influential periodical, Kokumin no tomo (“Nation’s Friend”), that was Japan’s first general magazine. Min’yūsha in 1890 began printing Kokumn shimbun (“The Nation Newspaper”), which was for several decades one of the most influential papers in the country.

Kitakyūshū: Kokura, a former arsenal town, specializes in iron and steel and machinery. Moji contains the city’s major port facilities; it is a coal-shipping and fishing port and has oil-storage facilities.

National Science Museum, museum in Tokyo, founded in 1872, concerned with the history of the physical sciences, natural history, and technology. The collections include models of Japanese flora in wax and other materials, engineering and scientific apparatus, and machines of historical

National Museum of Modern Art, museum in Tokyo devoted to important Japanese works of art of the 20th century. The collection covers works of past artists outstanding in the history of Japanese art; outstanding works of contemporary artists; and works selected for their historical importance. The

National Diet Library, the national library of Japan, formed at Tokyo in 1948 and combining the libraries of the upper and lower houses of the Diet (national legislature) with the collections of the former Imperial Library (established 1872). The library’s building opened in 1961, adjacent to the

National Museum of Western Art, Japanese national collection of European art, located in Ueno Park, Tokyo. The museum building, designed by Le Corbusier, was opened in 1959, and an annex by Maekawa Kunio was added in 1979. The basis of the collection was a group of more than 400 French paintings,

Japan: The weakening of party government: Most, like the Black Dragon Society (Kokuryūkai), combined continental adventurism and a strong nationalist stance with opposition to party government, big business, acculturation, and Westernization. By allying with other rightists, they alternately terrorized and intimidated their presumed opponents. A number of business leaders and political figures were killed,…

Chikamatsu Monzaemon: …work was Kokusenya kassen (1715; The Battles of Coxinga), a historical melodrama based loosely on events in the life of the Chinese-Japanese adventurer who attempted to restore the Ming dynasty in China. Another celebrated work is Shinjū ten no Amijima (1720; Double Suicide at Amijima), still frequently performed. Despite Chikamatsu’s…

Japan: The ritsuryō system: …administered by officials known as kokushi, gunji, and richō, respectively. The posts of kokushi were filled by members of the central bureaucracy in turn, but the posts of gunji and richō were staffed by members of prominent local families.

Knights of Labor (KOL), the first important national labour organization in the United States, founded in 1869. Named the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor by its first leader, Uriah Smith Stephens, it originated as a secret organization meant to protect its members from employer retaliations.

Aligarh, city, western Uttar Pradesh state, northern India. It lies at the southern edge of the Upper Ganges-Yamuna Doab, about 65 miles (100 km) southeast of Delhi and some 25 miles (40 km) southwest of the Ganges (Ganga) River. The city itself is usually called Koil or Kol; Aligarh is the name of

Kol Nidre, (Aramaic: “All Vows”), a prayer sung in Jewish synagogues at the beginning of the service on the eve of Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement). The name, derived from the opening words, also designates the melody to which the prayer is traditionally chanted. Though equally ancient versions exist

Arnold Schoenberg: Evolution from tonality of Arnold Schoenberg: …of particular Jewish interest, including Kol Nidre for mixed chorus, speaker, and orchestra, Op. 39 (1938)—the Kol Nidre is a prayer sung in synagogues at the beginning of the service on the eve of Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement)—and the Prelude to the “Genesis Suite” for orchestra and mixed chorus,…

S.Y. Agnon: …one in 11 volumes (Kol sipurav shel Shmuel Yosef Agnon, vol. 1–6, Berlin, 1931–35; 7–11, Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, 1939–52) and one in 8 volumes (Tel Aviv, 1953–62). The archaic structure of his prose presents great difficulties for the translator, yet even in translation his power is unmistakable.

middot: …more prominent middot are the kol wa-ḥomer (“how much more”), in which the interpreter proceeds from a minor to a major premise, and the gezera shawa (comparison of similar expressions, or laws), in which an inference is made by analogy. The kol wa-ḥomer rule is limited by the principle of…

kola nut, caffeine-containing nut of Cola acuminata and Cola nitida, trees of the cocoa family (Sterculiaceae) native to tropical Africa and cultivated extensively in the American tropics. The evergreen tree grows to 18.3 metres (60 feet) and resembles the chestnut. The 5-centimetre- (2-inch-) long

Kola Peninsula, large promontory in Murmansk oblast (province), far northern Russia. The Kola Peninsula covers some 40,000 square miles (100,000 square km) and extends across the Arctic Circle for about 190 miles (305 km) north-south and 250 miles (400 km) east-west, separating the White and

Leszek Kolakowski was a Polish philosopher and historian of philosophy who became one of Marxism’s greatest intellectual critics. Kolakowski was educated privately and in the underground school system during the German occupation of Poland in World War II. In 1950 he received an M.A. in philosophy

kōlakretai, Athenian financial administrators of the 6th and 5th centuries bce. Their title (“collectors of legs”) indicates their original function as collectors of animal sacrifices. In the 6th century bce they managed the Athenian treasury and after the reforms of Cleisthenes (c. 508) were

South Asian arts: Masked drama: …of the four folk-drama forms—kolam, sokari, nadagam, and pasu—the most highly developed and significant is the kolam, in which actors wear brightly painted and intricately carved wooden masks. The word kolam is of Tamil origin and means “costume,” “impersonation,” or “guise.” The performance consists of the masked representation of…

Colombo, city, executive and judicial capital of Sri Lanka. (Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte, a Colombo suburb, is the legislative capital.) Situated on the west coast of the island, just south of the Kelani River, Colombo is a principal port on the Indian Ocean. It has one of the largest artificial

Dravidian languages: Central Dravidian languages: Kolami has the largest number of speakers, approximately 122,000 people, and has borrowed heavily from Telugu.

Alor Islands: …two major mountains of which, Kolana (5,791 feet [1,765 metres]) and Muna (4,724 feet [1,440 metres]), are both old volcanoes. Alor is broken up by steep ravines, with only one plateau and some small coastal plains. Pantar Island is high (Mount Delaki rises to 4,324 feet [1,318 metres]), with a…

Kolar, city, southeastern Karnataka state, southern India. The city is situated in an upland region of the Karnataka Plateau, about 35 miles (55 km) northest of Bengaluru (Bangalore). Kolar lies in Karnataka’s dry zone, with scrub vegetation suitable for sheep raising in the surrounding area. Its

Kolar Gold Fields, mining area, southeastern Karnataka state, southern India. It lies on a Southern Railway spur that loops from Bangarapet to Bengaluru (Bangalore). Economic activities centred on the goldfields, which were the southern portion of a gold-bearing region that extends for 40 miles (65

Croatian literature: …wrote gripping historical novels; and Slavko Kolar, who depicted the life of the peasant in a changing world. The dominant writers of the interwar period were August Cesarec (Zlatni mladić [1928; “The Golden Boy”]) and Miroslav Krleža (Povratak Filipa Latinovicza [1932; The Return of Philip Latinovicz] and the collection of…

Shumen, town, northeastern Bulgaria. It lies in a valley in the eastern foothills of the Shumen limestone plateau. The town is a road and rail centre with such industries as tobacco processing, canning and brewing, furniture making, and the manufacture of enamelware. Shumen also has a factory that

Hermann Kolbe was a German chemist who accomplished the first generally accepted synthesis of an organic compound from inorganic materials. Kolbe studied chemistry with Friedrich Wöhler at the University of Göttingen and earned his doctorate in 1843 with Robert Bunsen at the University of Marburg

Western sculpture: Conservative reaction (1920s): In Germany, Georg Kolbe’s Standing Man and Woman of 1931 seems a prelude to the Nazi health cult, and the serene but vacuous figures of Arno Breker, Karl Albiker, and Ernesto de Fiori were simply variations on a studio theme in praise of youth and body culture.…

Hermann Kolbe was a German chemist who accomplished the first generally accepted synthesis of an organic compound from inorganic materials. Kolbe studied chemistry with Friedrich Wöhler at the University of Göttingen and earned his doctorate in 1843 with Robert Bunsen at the University of Marburg

Pertti Karppinen: …and 1985, tied him with Peter-Michael Kolbe of Germany as the only five-time single sculls champions.

St. Maksymilian Maria Kolbe ; feast day August 14) ; canonized October 10, 1982) was a Franciscan priest and religious founder martyred by the Nazis for aiding Jewish refugees during World War II. In 1906 young Kolbe had a vision of the Virgin Mary in which she offered him a white crown and a red

St. Maksymilian Maria Kolbe ; feast day August 14) ; canonized October 10, 1982) was a Franciscan priest and religious founder martyred by the Nazis for aiding Jewish refugees during World War II. In 1906 young Kolbe had a vision of the Virgin Mary in which she offered him a white crown and a red

Kołobrzeg, city, Zachodniopomorskie województwo (province), northwestern Poland. It lies at the mouth of the Parsęta River on the Baltic Sea. It is a port and health spa, with its economy relying on fishing and tourism. Founded as a Slavic stronghold in the 8th century, Kołobrzeg was incorporated

Aleksandr Vasilyevich Kolchak was an Arctic explorer and naval officer, who was recognized in 1919–20 by the “Whites” as supreme ruler of Russia; after his overthrow he was put to death by the Bolsheviks. At the outbreak of World War I, Kolchak was flag captain of the Baltic fleet. By August 1916,

Leninsk-Kuznetsky, city, in Kemerovo oblast (region), central Russia. It lies along the Inya River, a tributary of the Ob. In 1912 a French company started coal-mining operations there; from the 1930s the city developed rapidly to become a major coal-mining centre, with many pits located in the

Ferenc Kölcsey was a Hungarian Romantic poet whose poem “Hymnusz” (1823), evoking the glory of Hungary’s past, became the national anthem of Hungary. Orphaned at an early age and handicapped by the loss of an eye, Kölcsey spent much of his solitary youth reading Greek poets and German classicists.

Kristen Mikkelsen Kold was an educator who did more than anyone else of his time to promote the folk high-school movement in Denmark. Kold was a shoemaker’s son and was educated as a teacher, but he found himself unable to adapt to the highly formal educational system. Instead, he founded a

Robert Koldewey was a German architect and archaeologist who revealed the semilegendary Babylon of the Bible as a geographic and historical reality. Koldewey’s activities as a field archaeologist began with visits to ancient Assus (Assos) in western Turkey (1882) and the nearby island of Lesbos

India: Developments in the Ganges basin: …at least one of these, Koldihwa, dates as early as the 7th millennium have been reported. The sites contain circular huts made of timber posts and thatch; associated implements and vessels include stone blades, ground stone axes, bone tools, and crude handmade pottery, often bearing the marks of cords or…

Kolding, city, eastern Jutland, Denmark. It lies at the head of Kolding Fjord, north of Haderslev. The name occurs in the 10th century, but the earliest-known town rights date from 1321. The settlement grew up around Koldinghus, a royal castle built in 1248 to defend the frontier. Kolding was the

Kolding: The settlement grew up around Koldinghus, a royal castle built in 1248 to defend the frontier. Kolding was the scene of a Danish victory over the Swedes in 1644 and of a Danish defeat by Schleswig-Holsteiners in 1849. The castle was severely damaged by fire in 1808 but has been…

Kolea, town, northern Algeria. It is located about 17 miles (27 km) southwest of Algiers, on the southern, inland slopes of the coastal hills overlooking the valley of Wadi Mazafran and the Mitidja plain. It was founded in 1550 by Khayr al-Dīn (Barbarossa), the Barbary pirate, and was originally

Hannes Kolehmainen was a Finnish athlete who was the first of the great modern Finnish long-distance runners. Noted for his exceptional endurance, he won four Olympic gold medals. Kolehmainen was born into an athletic family—two older brothers were also notable long-distance runners—and he began

Hannes Kolehmainen was a Finnish athlete who was the first of the great modern Finnish long-distance runners. Noted for his exceptional endurance, he won four Olympic gold medals. Kolehmainen was born into an athletic family—two older brothers were also notable long-distance runners—and he began

Waianae Range: Kolekole Pass (constructed 1937), 3 miles (5 km) south, is an important link between the west coast and the fertile central plateau.

Malayalam language: Known as Koleluttu (“Rod Script”), it is derived from the Grantha script, which in turn is derived from Brahmi. Koleluttu has letters to represent the entire corpus of sounds from both Dravidian and Sanskrit.

Lapland: …the northern part of the Kolen Mountains, which reach elevations of more than 6,500 feet (2,000 metres). On its Norwegian (western) side this range slopes abruptly and is deeply eroded into fjords and headlands and fractured into archipelagoes. The eastern flank of the range, which is situated in Swedish Lapland…

Great Scarcies River, river in western Africa, rising 25 miles (40 km) north of Kindia in the Fouta Djallon highlands of western Guinea. It marks 63 miles (101 km) of the Guinea–Sierra Leone border before entering Sierra Leone to complete its 160-mile (257-kilometre) course to the Atlantic Ocean.

Greece: Greece under Otto of Wittelsbach: …with his crafty prime minister, Ioánnis Koléttis, was able to overturn the new constitution by establishing a kind of parliamentary dictatorship. The attempt to implant a liberal constitutional democracy onto an essentially premodern, traditional society that had evolved in quite a different fashion from those of western Europe gave rise…

golf: Scots as inventors: a popular fallacy: …such is referred to as kolven (the infinitive of a verb used as a noun). This confirms that the Scots word golf is indeed based on kolve or kolf. In the course of a dialogue in this text, the fictitious players also give the first indication of the existence of…

Kolguyev Island, island, Arkhangelsk oblast (region), northwestern Russia. Kolguyev lies in the Barents Sea and is 45 miles (72 km) off the mainland. About 3,220 square miles (5,200 square km) in area, it is an island of bogs and morainic hills, covered by vegetation characteristic of the tundra;

India: Rise of the peshwas: …family itself that relocated to Kolhapur and Nagpur, while the main line remained in the Deccan heartland, at Satara. The Kolhapur line derived from Rajaram and his wife, Tara Bai, who had refused in 1708 to accept Shahu’s rule and who negotiated with some Mughal court factions in a bid…

Kolhapur, city, southwestern Maharashtra state, western India. It is situated on the eastern side of the Western Ghats on the Pancaganga River. The city was the capital of the princely state of Kolhapur and was the seat of the British residency for Deccan states. An early centre of Buddhism, the

Walther Bothe: With the astronomer Werner Kolhörster, Bothe again applied this coincidence-counting method in 1929 and found that cosmic rays are not composed exclusively of gamma rays, as was previously believed. In 1930 Bothe discovered an unusual radiation emitted by beryllium when it is bombarded with alpha particles. This radiation…

Koli, caste with many subgroups who inhabit the central and western mountain area of India. The largest groups of Koli live in the state of Maharashtra, especially in Mumbai, and in Gujarat state. The traditional occupation of the coastal Koli is fishing, although many are now employed in schools

Lake Pielinen: …shore, which is capped by Koli hill; the latter rises to a height of 1,138 ft (347 m) and is the centre of an important winter-sports area. There is a ferry service on the lake during summer and an ice-road during winter.

Frederick II: Trials and lessons of Frederick II: …after a serious defeat at Kolín in June. Brilliant victories over the French and Austrian armies, respectively, at Rossbach and Leuthen in November and December partially reestablished Frederick’s position, but it still remained extremely precarious. Ruthless exploitation of every available resource (notably of much of Saxony, which was under Prussian…

kolinsky, any of several species of Asian weasels. See

kolinsky, any of several species of Asian weasels. See

Albanian literature: …Çajupi), a poet and playwright; Ernest Koliqi, a short-story writer, poet, and novelist; Ndre Mjeda, a poet and linguist; and Migjeni (acronym of Milosh Gjergj Nikolla), a poet and novelist.

Slavic religion: Communal banquets and related practices: …in the case of the Koljada (Latin Kalendae)—the annual visit made by the spirits of the dead, under the disguise of beggars, to all the houses in the village. It is possible that the bones of the disinterred were kept for a long period inside the dwellings, as is still…

whirlpool: These are called kolks, or boils, and are readily visible on the surface.

Kolkata, city, capital of West Bengal state, and former capital (1772–1911) of British India. It is one of India’s largest cities and one of its major ports. The city is centred on the east bank of the Hugli (Hooghly) River, once the main channel of the Ganges (Ganga) River, about 96 miles (154 km)

Kolkata: Government of Kolkata: The Kolkata High Court, exercising original jurisdiction over the city and appellate jurisdiction over West Bengal, is also located there. A number of national government institutions—including the National Library, the Indian Museum, and the Geological Survey of India—are in the city as well.

Indian Premier League: …the 2008 season and the Kolkata Knight Riders $2.4 million to sign Gautam Gambhir, the opening batsman for the Indian national team, in the bidding for the 2011 season. Yuvraj Singh (2014 and 2015), Ben Stokes (2017 and 2018), Pat Cummins (2020), Chris Morris (2021), Sam Curran (2023), and Mitchell…

Kolkata: Government of Kolkata: …also a part of the Kolkata Metropolitan District, an entity created to oversee planning and development on a regional basis. This district includes a large rural hinterland around the urban centres.

Kolkata: Government of Kolkata: …is the responsibility of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation; the corporation’s council is composed of one elected representative from each of the city’s wards. The council members annually elect a mayor, a deputy mayor, and a number of committees to conduct the activities of the corporation. A commissioner, the executive head…

Kolkhida, coastal lowland plain of the eastern Black Sea, in Georgia. Named for the ancient kingdom of Colchis, it comprises the combined alluvial plains of the Rioni, Inguri, and other rivers rising in the Greater Caucasus range, which encloses the plain on the north, and the Lesser Caucasus, to

Kolkhida, coastal lowland plain of the eastern Black Sea, in Georgia. Named for the ancient kingdom of Colchis, it comprises the combined alluvial plains of the Rioni, Inguri, and other rivers rising in the Greater Caucasus range, which encloses the plain on the north, and the Lesser Caucasus, to

kolkhoz, in the former Soviet Union, a cooperative agricultural enterprise operated on state-owned land by peasants from a number of households who belonged to the collective and who were paid as salaried employees on the basis of quality and quantity of labour contributed. Conceived as a voluntary

kolkhoz, in the former Soviet Union, a cooperative agricultural enterprise operated on state-owned land by peasants from a number of households who belonged to the collective and who were paid as salaried employees on the basis of quality and quantity of labour contributed. Conceived as a voluntary

kolkhoz, in the former Soviet Union, a cooperative agricultural enterprise operated on state-owned land by peasants from a number of households who belonged to the collective and who were paid as salaried employees on the basis of quality and quantity of labour contributed. Conceived as a voluntary

kolkhoz, in the former Soviet Union, a cooperative agricultural enterprise operated on state-owned land by peasants from a number of households who belonged to the collective and who were paid as salaried employees on the basis of quality and quantity of labour contributed. Conceived as a voluntary

beauty bush, (Kolkwitzia amabilis), ornamental flowering shrub of the Linnaea clade in the family Caprifoliaceae, native to central China. It is the only member of its genus. The beauty bush has deciduous oval leaves and can reach a maximum height of about 3 m (10 feet). Its paired bell-like

Kollam, port city, southern Kerala state, southwestern India. It lies on the Malabar Coast of the Arabian Sea northwest of Thiruvananthapuram, the state capital. The city is situated next to Asthamudi Lake, an inlet of the sea, and is linked with Alappuzha and Kochi (Cochin) to the north by a

chronology: Reckonings dated from a historical event: It is called the Kollam era (ad 825). Its years are current and solar; they start when the Sun enters into the zodiacal sign of Virgo in north Malabār and when it enters into Leo in south Malabār. It is sometimes divided into cycles of 1,000 years reckoned from…

Ján Kollár was a Slovak poet who played an important part in the national and literary revival of the Slavs in the early 19th century. Kollár was educated at the University of Jena and served as pastor to the Slovak community in Pest (now Budapest) from 1819 to 1849. The last three years of his

Hugo Kołłątaj was a Polish Roman Catholic priest, reformer, and politician who was prominent in the movement for national regeneration in the years following the First Partition of Poland (1772). After studying in Kraków, Vienna, and Rome, Kołłątaj returned home in 1775 to play a leading part in

Kollegal, town located in the southernmost corner of Karnataka state, southern India. Kollegal is noted for the reeling of silk yarn and for silk weaving. Both Kannada, the official language of Karnataka, and Tamil are spoken there, a result of Kollegal’s proximity to Tamil-speaking areas and its

Vasily Aksyonov: His novels Kollegi (1960; Colleagues), Zvezdnyi bilet (1961; A Ticket to the Stars), and Apelsiny iz Morokko (1963; “Oranges from Morocco”) are fast-moving narratives dealing with youthful rebels and misfits in Soviet society. In these books Aksyonov excels in reproducing the racy slang and jargon of characters who are…

college: In Germany Kollegien appears in the name of some institutions offering technical courses. See also higher education.

Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach: Early career in Italy and Austria.: …almost geometric forms of the Kollegienkirche (University Church) surmounted by the undulating forms of its towers crown the university complex, providing a new architectural and symbolic accent to a city dominated by its massive cathedral, as Salzburg had been. Fischer also designed a new facade for the archbishop’s stables and…

Teddy Kollek was an Israeli politician, who was mayor of Jerusalem from 1965 to 1993. Kollek, who grew up in Vienna, moved to Palestine in 1934. There he helped found the Ein Gev kibbutz and became active in the Betar Zionist Youth Movement. He also helped organize the clandestine immigration of

Teddy Kollek was an Israeli politician, who was mayor of Jerusalem from 1965 to 1993. Kollek, who grew up in Vienna, moved to Palestine in 1934. There he helped found the Ein Gev kibbutz and became active in the Betar Zionist Youth Movement. He also helped organize the clandestine immigration of

kolkhoz, in the former Soviet Union, a cooperative agricultural enterprise operated on state-owned land by peasants from a number of households who belonged to the collective and who were paid as salaried employees on the basis of quality and quantity of labour contributed. Conceived as a voluntary

Carl Koller was a Czech-born American ophthalmic surgeon whose introduction of cocaine as a surface anesthetic in eye surgery (1884) inaugurated the modern era of local anesthesia. Koller was an intern and house surgeon at the Vienna General Hospital when his colleague Sigmund Freud, attempting to