Hermann Lietz was a German educational reformer. In 1898 he taught at the progressive Abbotsholme school for boys, founded in Derbyshire, Eng., in 1889 by Cecil Reddie. Lietz was impressed by the Abbotsholme system of education, which combined comprehensive individual instruction with physical

Hans Lietzmann was a German scholar and Lutheran church historian noted for his investigations of Christian origins. While a professor of classical philology and church history at the University of Jena (1905–24) and the University of Berlin (1924–42), Lietzmann began and directed the Handbuch zum

lieutenant, company grade officer, the lowest rank of commissioned officer in most armies of the world. The lieutenant normally commands a small tactical unit such as a platoon. In the British Army and in the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, a second lieutenant is the lowest ranking

Mafia: Below the underboss were the caporegime, or lieutenants, who, acting as buffers between the lower echelon workers and the don himself, protected him from a too-direct association with the organization’s illicit operations. The lieutenants supervised squads of “soldiers,” who often had charge of one of the family’s legal operations (e.g.,…

military unit: …and is commanded by a lieutenant colonel. The battalion is the smallest unit to have a staff of officers (in charge of personnel, operations, intelligence, and logistics) to assist the commander. Several battalions form a brigade, which has 2,000 to 8,000 troops and is commanded by a brigadier general or…

Jean-Jacques Servan-Schreiber: …book, Lieutenant en Algérie (1957; Lieutenant in Algeria), which exposed French atrocities in the Algerian War of Independence. The controversial book was later credited with helping turn French public opinion against the Algerian conflict. In Le Défi américain (1967; The American Challenge) he warned against Europe’s becoming merely an economic…

military unit: …and is commanded by a lieutenant general. The army corps is the largest regular army formation, though in wartime two or more corps may be combined to form a field army (commanded by a general), and field armies in turn may be combined to form an army group.

police: The French police under the monarchy: …XIV proclaimed the office of lieutenant of police (the title later was changed to lieutenant general of police). Nicolas de La Reynie, a magistrate, was the first person to hold the post, from 1667 to 1697. Like most government offices, the police lieutenancy had to be bought from the French…

United States: State and local government: Most states have a lieutenant governor, who is often elected independently of the governor and is sometimes not a member of the governor’s party. Lieutenant governors generally serve as the presiding officer of the state Senate. Other elected officials commonly include a secretary of state, state treasurer, state auditor,…

Jean-Jacques Servan-Schreiber: …book, Lieutenant en Algérie (1957; Lieutenant in Algeria), which exposed French atrocities in the Algerian War of Independence. The controversial book was later credited with helping turn French public opinion against the Algerian conflict. In Le Défi américain (1967; The American Challenge) he warned against Europe’s becoming merely an economic…

police: The French police under the monarchy: …XIV proclaimed the office of lieutenant of police (the title later was changed to lieutenant general of police). Nicolas de La Reynie, a magistrate, was the first person to hold the post, from 1667 to 1697. Like most government offices, the police lieutenancy had to be bought from the French…

Kate Grenville: Grenville’s next novel, The Lieutenant (2008), is set in 18th-century New South Wales and centres on a member of the British fleet. Sarah Thornhill (2011), a sequel to The Secret River, follows the youngest child of William. The fictional memoir A Room Made of Leaves (2020) chronicles the…

Jan Lievens was a versatile painter and printmaker whose style derived from both the Dutch and Flemish schools of Baroque art. A contemporary of Rembrandt, he was a pupil of Joris van Schooten (1616–18) and of Rembrandt’s teacher Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam (1618–20). After residing in Leiden for a

Jan Lievens was a versatile painter and printmaker whose style derived from both the Dutch and Flemish schools of Baroque art. A contemporary of Rembrandt, he was a pupil of Joris van Schooten (1616–18) and of Rembrandt’s teacher Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam (1618–20). After residing in Leiden for a

Liévin, town, Pas-de-Calais département, Hauts-de-France région, northern France, near the source of the Deûle River, southwest of Lille. Mentioned as Laid-win (Laivin) in 1104, it developed as a coal-mining centre of the Lens area. Many of the former miners’ houses have been restored, and lighter

Daoism: Lives of the Immortals: …Lives of the Immortals (Liexuanzhuan) of the early 2nd century ce. Such collections were a genre of the time. Brief sketches were provided for 72 figures: the same symbolic number as was found in contemporary collections of the “Lives” of the disciples of Confucius, eminent scholar-officials, and famous women.…

Liezi was one of the three primary philosophers who developed the basic tenets of Daoist philosophy and the presumed author of the Daoist work Liezi (also known as Chongxu zhide zhenjing [“True Classic of the Perfect Virtue of Simplicity and Emptiness”]). Many of the writings traditionally

Liezi: …author of the Daoist work Liezi (also known as Chongxu zhide zhenjing [“True Classic of the Perfect Virtue of Simplicity and Emptiness”]).

Ragnarök: …one poem two human beings, Lif and Lifthrasir (“Life” and “Vitality”), will emerge from the world tree (which was not destroyed) and repeople the earth. The title of Richard Wagner’s opera Götterdämmerung is a German equivalent of Ragnarök meaning “twilight of the gods.”

stem cell: Mouse embryonic stem cells: …indefinitely in the presence of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), a glycoprotein cytokine. If cultured mouse embryonic stem cells are injected into an early mouse embryo at the blastocyst stage, they will become integrated into the embryo and produce cells that differentiate into most or all of the tissue types that…

lithium: Chemical properties: Lithium fluoride (LiF) is used chiefly as a fluxing agent in enamels and glasses.

Lifan Yuan, government bureau established in the 17th century by China’s Qing (Manchu) dynasty to handle relations with the peoples of Inner Asia. It signified the growing interest of China in Central Asia. The office appointed governors to supervise Chinese territory in Central Asia and Tibet,

Mfecane, series of Zulu and other Nguni wars and forced migrations of the second and third decades of the 19th century that changed the demographic, social, and political configuration of southern and central Africa and parts of eastern Africa. The Mfecane was set in motion by the rise of the Zulu

Serge Lifar was a Ukrainian-born French dancer, choreographer, and ballet master (1929–45, 1947–58) of the Paris Opéra Ballet who enriched its repertoire, reestablished its reputation as a leading ballet company, and enhanced the position of male dancers in a company long dominated by ballerinas.

Rebecca Ferguson: Stardom: The White Queen and the Mission: Impossible films: Her credits from 2017 include Life, a sci-fi thriller set at the International Space Station; The Snowman, based on Jo Nesbø’s novel about detective Harry Hole; and The Greatest Showman, a biographical musical about P.T. Barnum (played by Hugh Jackman).

Martin Lawrence: In Life (1999) he and Eddie Murphy played two strangers who become friends after being sentenced to life in prison in the 1930s for a crime they did not commit. Lawrence again displayed his facility with prostheses by playing an FBI agent who must disguise himself…

Life’s commitment to vivid photojournalism made it one of the most popular and widely imitated American magazines during the 20th century. Life was launched as a weekly magazine in 1936 by Henry Luce, publisher of Time, and it quickly became a cornerstone of his Time-Life Publications. It ceased

George Cavendish: …through a single work, his Life of Cardinal Wolsey. This work is a landmark in the development of English biography, an important document to the student of Tudor history, and a rare source of information on the character of the author himself. Cavendish applied to his subject methods of concrete…

life, living matter and, as such, matter that shows certain attributes that include responsiveness, growth, metabolism, energy transformation, and reproduction. Although a noun, as with other defined entities, the word life might be better cast as a verb to reflect its essential status as a

Michael Cera: Later credits and voice work: …appearing on the dramedy series Life & Beth, playing the love interest of star Amy Schumer.

African literature: English: …for Literature in 2003, wrote Life and Times of Michael K (1983), a story with a blurred hero and an indistinct historical and geographical background. It describes a war that could be any war, a country that could be any country, a bureaucracy that could be any bureaucracy. Through it…

Yasmina Reza: Reza’s next play, Trois versions de la vie, showed an awkward situation—a couple arriving a day early for a dinner party—working itself out in three different outcomes. After premiering in Vienna in October 2000, it opened the following month in Paris, with the author in the cast, and…

National Defense Education Act: Background: …in American schools was the life adjustment movement, which aimed to provide a curriculum that would teach “life skills” that would be particularly valuable for students who did not plan to continue on to college or other types of postsecondary training after high school. This movement, headed by the vocational…

Aubrey Plaza: In 2014 she starred in Life After Beth, a horror comedy about a young woman who returns from the dead, as well as the drama Ned Rifle. She also appeared on other TV series, including a recurring role on the sketch comedy show Portlandia (2011–12), and was the voice of…

afterlife, continued existence in some form after physiological death. The belief that some aspect of an individual survives after death—usually, the individual’s soul—is common to the great majority of the world’s religions. Of those religions that include belief in an afterlife, almost all

The Notorious B.I.G.: Wallace’s second solo album, Life After Death, was released later that month.

Douglas Coupland: Life After God (1994) is an introspective collection of short stories about contemporary suburbanites. The novel Microserfs (1995) had its origins in an assignment for Wired magazine during which Coupland observed employees of Microsoft Corporation in Redmond, Washington, U.S. Microserfs was his fictional account of…

Kate Atkinson: …later critically acclaimed works was Life After Life (2013), a novel in which the protagonist, Ursula Todd, repeatedly dies and is reborn in the year 1910. In each new life, Ursula is confronted by different choices and situations that have the potential to alter the course of history. The novel…

Sarah Winnemucca: …best known for her book Life Among the Piutes: Their Wrongs and Claims (1883). Her writings, valuable for their description of Northern Paiute life and for their insights into the impact of white settlement, are among the few contemporary Native American works.

John Rechy: …Coming of the Night (1999), The Life and Adventures of Lyle Clemens (2003), After the Blue Hour (2017), and Pablo! (2018). In addition, he published the essay collection Beneath the Skin (2004). About My Life and the Kept Woman (2008) is a memoir.

Martin Chuzzlewit, novel by Charles Dickens, published serially under the pseudonym “Boz” from 1843 to 1844 and in book form in 1844. The story’s protagonist, Martin Chuzzlewit, is an apprentice architect who is fired by Seth Pecksniff and is also disinherited by his own eccentric, wealthy

Nicholas Nickleby, novel by Charles Dickens, originally published in 20 monthly installments under the pseudonym “Boz” from 1838 to 1839 and published in book form in 1839. An early novel, this melodramatic tale of young Nickleby’s adventures as he struggles to seek his fortune in Victorian England

Erwin Panofsky: (1943; later published as The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer [1955]); Abbot Suger on the Abbey Church of St.-Denis and Its Art Treasures (1946); Gothic Architecture and Scholasticism (1951); Early Netherlandish Painting, 2 vol. (1953); Meaning in the Visual Arts (1955), a collection of nine of Panofsky’s most…

Mo Yan: …Sandalwood Death), Shengsi pilao (2006; Life and Death Are Wearing Me Out), and Wa (2009; Frog). Wan shu de ren (2020; A Late Bloomer) contains 12 novellas.

The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp, British romantic drama, released in 1943, that is famous for its lush Technicolor cinematography. It was the first film produced by director Michael Powell and screenwriter Emeric Pressburger after they formed the partnership known as the Archers. The story

Robert Sempill: He wrote the elegy “The Life and Death of Habbie Simson, the Piper of Kilbarchan” (1640). This humorous poem in Scots was included by James Watson in his Choice Collection (1706), and its fame was assured when the poet Allan Ramsay called its metre “Standart Habbie” and used it…

Robert Sempill: He wrote the elegy “The Life and Death of Habbie Simson, the Piper of Kilbarchan” (1640). This humorous poem in Scots was included by James Watson in his Choice Collection (1706), and its fame was assured when the poet Allan Ramsay called its metre “Standart Habbie” and used it…

English literature: The literature of World War I and the interwar period: …Olivier: A Life (1919) and Life and Death of Harriett Frean (1922), which explored the ways in which her female characters contributed to their own social and psychological repression. West, whose pen name was based on one of Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen’s female characters, was similarly interested in female self-negation.…

William Morris: Iceland and socialism: …success with the romantic narrative The Life and Death of Jason (1867), which was soon followed by The Earthly Paradise (1868–70), a series of narrative poems based on classical and medieval sources. The best parts of The Earthly Paradise are the introductory poems on the months, in which Morris reveals…

King John, chronicle play in five acts by William Shakespeare, written perhaps in 1594–96 and published in the First Folio of 1623 from an authorial manuscript that may have been copied and supplied with some theatrical touches. The source of the play was a two-part drama generally known as The

John Bunyan: Later life and works of John Bunyan: His The Life and Death of Mr. Badman (1680) is more like a realistic novel than an allegory in its portrait of the unrelievedly evil and unrepentant tradesman Mr. Badman. The book gives an insight into the problems of money and marriage when the Puritans were…

Charlize Theron: …in two movies in 2004, The Life and Death of Peter Sellers and Head in the Clouds. Her performance as a miner battling sexual harassment in North Country (2005) earned Theron an Academy Award nomination for best actress. She subsequently appeared in the drama In the Valley of Elah (2007),…

Sidney and Beatrice Webb: Early life of Beatrice Potter Webb.: …his monumental study of The Life and Labour of the People in London. In 1891 she published The Co-operative Movement in Great Britain, a small book based on her experiences in Lancashire, which later became a classic. It was not long before she realized that in order to find any…

Harry Warren: …for the 1955–61 television series The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp. He continued to compose but published little music after 1962.

Sir George Otto Trevelyan, 2nd Baronet: His Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay, 2 vol. (1876), regarded as one of the best biographies in English, presents Lord Macaulay, a historian and Whig politician, in the round and, though sympathetic, is never partisan. His historical works include the Early History of Charles James…

Preserved Smith: …published as a full biography, The Life and Letters of Martin Luther (1911), in which he saw the Reformation as the most significant period of change in modern thought and Luther as its leader. In 1920 he published his great work, The Age of the Reformation, a comprehensive survey of…

Fay Weldon: The Life and Loves of a She-Devil (1983) is critical of the roles both men and women play in supporting the ideal image of feminine beauty; Death of a She-Devil (2017) is the sequel.

Mason Locke Weems: …edition (1806) of Weems’s book The Life and Memorable Actions of George Washington (1800).

Tristram Shandy, experimental novel by Laurence Sterne, published in nine volumes from 1759 to 1767. Wildly experimental for its time, Tristram Shandy seems almost a modern avant-garde novel. Narrated by Shandy, the story begins at the moment of his conception and diverts into endless digressions,

Robinson Crusoe, novel by Daniel Defoe, first published in London in 1719. Defoe’s first long work of fiction, it introduced two of the most-enduring characters in English literature: Robinson Crusoe and Friday. Crusoe is the novel’s narrator. He describes how, as a headstrong young man, he ignored

African American literature: Slave narratives: The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Written by Himself (1845; read excerpts here) gained the most attention, establishing Frederick Douglass as the leading African American man of letters of his time. By predicating his struggle for freedom on his solitary pursuit…

John Huston: Last films: …follow-up was the revisionist western The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean (1973), a loose biography of the notorious self-appointed hanging judge Roy Bean, which featured Paul Newman in the title role, an irreverent screenplay by John Milius, and a supporting cast that included Anthony Perkins, Ava Gardner, and…

Jennifer Saunders: …a talk show host in The Life and Times of Vivienne Vyle. She later voiced Miss Reason in the surreal comedy series This Is Jinsy (2010–11, 2014) and appeared as a prison warden in the show Dead Boss (2012). She also costarred with Timothy Spall in the P.G. Wodehouse-inspired Blandings…

World Council of Churches: The Life and Work Movement concentrated on the practical activities of the churches, and the Faith and Order Movement focused on the beliefs and organization of the churches and the problems involved in their possible reunion. Before long, the two movements began to work toward establishing…

insurance: Group annuities: A life annuity, a subclass of annuities in general, is one in which the payments are guaranteed for the lifetime of one or more individuals. A group annuity differs from an individual annuity in that the annuity payments are based upon the assumed length of lives…

Noah Baumbach: Film career: …Anderson on the screenplay for The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou, which Anderson directed. The quirky comedy starred Bill Murray as an oceanographer who seeks revenge on the shark that killed his diving partner.

Kevin Kline: …21st century Kline appeared in Life as a House (2001), The Emperor’s Club (2002), and The Pink Panther (2006), as well as Kenneth Branagh’s As You Like It (2006). He also performed in Robert Redford’s The Conspirator (2010), played

Katherine Heigl: …The Ugly Truth (2009), and Life As We Know It (2010), about a mismatched couple entrusted with raising an orphaned infant. She also appeared in the action comedies Killers (2010), as a woman who unknowingly marries a former assassin, and One for the Money (2012), as a novice bounty hunter.…

Catherine O’Hara: …credits included the crime film The Life Before This (1999), the comedy Orange County (2002), A Series of Unfortunate Events (2004), the fantasy Penelope (2006), Away We Go (2009), and the TV movie Temple Grandin (2010). She appeared in several TV comedies and had a recurring role (2003 and 2005)…

Great Depression: Portrayals of hope: …the decade’s best-selling self-help books, Life Begins at Forty (1932) by Walter Pitkin, implied that a wise if chastened maturity was emotionally healthier and more realistic than adolescent self-confidence. At the same time, movies like Capra’s It Happened One Night (1934), You Can’t Take It with You (1938), and Meet…

Sidney Poitier: Return to acting: Life Beyond Measure: Letters to My Great-Granddaughter (2008) was a volume of advice and insights in epistolary form. He also released a suspense novel, Montaro Caine, in 2013.

David Storey: …of a semiprofessional rugby team; Life Class (1974), about a failed art master; Mother’s Day (1976); Sisters (1978); Early Days (1980); and The March on Russia (1989).

life cycle, in biology, the series of changes that the members of a species undergo as they pass from the beginning of a given developmental stage to the inception of that same developmental stage in a subsequent generation. In many simple organisms, including bacteria and various protists, the

information system: Internal information systems development: …two broad methods is used: life-cycle development or rapid application development (RAD).

Indian philosophy: 19th- and 20th-century philosophy in India and Pakistan: In his major work, The Life Divine, Sri Aurobindo starts from the fact of human aspiration for a kingdom of heaven on earth and proceeds to give a theoretical framework in which such an aspiration would be not a figment of imagination but a drive in nature, working through…

property law: Life estate and remainder: One of the possible temporal divisions of ownership in Anglo-American law, the life estate and the remainder in fee, has already been considered. In such an arrangement the life tenant has the right to possess the land for his natural life.…

pussy-toes: Antennaria dioica has several cultivated varieties of white, wooly appearance and with small clusters of white to rose flowers. In some species, including smaller pussy-toes (A. neodioica), male flowers are rare. The plantain-leaved pussy-toes (A. plantaginifolia), also called ladies’ tobacco, has longer and broader basal…

life expectancy, estimate of the average number of additional years that a person of a given age can expect to live. The most common measure of life expectancy is life expectancy at birth. Life expectancy is a hypothetical measure. It assumes that the age-specific death rates for the year in

opera: Russian opera: …Glinka: Zhizn za tsarya (A Life for the Tsar), also known as Ivan Susanin, (1836), and Ruslan i Lyudmila (1842; “Ruslan and Lyudmila”), both premiered in St. Petersburg. Basically Italianate operas, they—Ruslan in particular—determined the course of Russian opera, because of Glinka’s approximations of Slavic folk music, his modified…

Patti LuPone: In the television series Life Goes On (1989–93), she played the mother of a child with Down syndrome. The mixed reviews of her performance as Norma Desmond in Lloyd Webber’s London production of Sunset Boulevard (1992) led him to replace her with Glenn Close in the Broadway production. LuPone…

Girish Karnad: …and acting in Iqbal (2005), Life Goes On (2009), and 24 (2016), among others.

population ecology: Life histories and the structure of populations: An organism’s life history is the sequence of events related to survival and reproduction that occur from birth through death. Populations from different parts of the geographic range that a species inhabits may exhibit marked variations in their…

Erik Erikson: …in a collection of essays, Life History and the Historical Moment (1975), which links psychoanalysis to history, political science, philosophy, and theology. His later works include The Life Cycle Completed: A Review (1982) and Vital Involvement in Old Age (1986), written with his wife and Helen Q. Kivnik. A collection…

Bromeliads comprise an entire order of flowering plants called Bromeliales. The pineapple is the most familiar member of this tropical American group, which also includes some of the most interesting plants of the rainforest—the tank bromeliads. Most bromeliads are epiphytes—that is, plants that

Cuba Gooding, Jr.: In the romantic drama Life in a Year (2020), Gooding played a father whose son wants to be a rapper.

Nicholas Cabasilas: Cabasilas’ chief spiritual–ascetical writing, Life in Christ, proposed a program of Christian spirituality integrating divine and human activity in both individual and common liturgical prayer. By essays and political involvement he manifested a social consciousness relative to economic and institutional (including the church) inequities. The high intellectual level of…

Matt Groening: …who created the comic strip Life in Hell (1980–2012) and the television series The Simpsons (1989– ) and Futurama (1999–2003, 2010–13).

Dianne Wiest: …cast member of the series Life in Pieces (2015–19), and she costarred with Jeremy Renner in Mayor of Kingstown (2021– ), a drama about a powerful family in a city that is economically dependent on the local prisons. Wiest’s films during this time included Clint Eastwood’s The Mule (2018) and…

caudillismo: Domingo Faustino Sarmiento’s 1845 book Facundo provided the classical interpretation of caudillismo in Latin America in the 1800s, framing it as the expression of political barbarism and the antithesis of a government that ensures security, freedom, and ownership rights for a country’s inhabitants. Sarmiento’s book is a portrait of Juan…

Penelope Lively: Life in the Garden (2017) was described as a “horticultural memoir.” Her novels during this time included Consequences (2007), which follows the lives of three generations of women; Family Album (2009); and How It All Began (2011). The Purple Swamp Hen, and Other Stories was…

Claire Trevor: …her feature film debut in Life in the Raw. Notable among the many other films she made in the mid-1930s were Dante’s Inferno (1935); Dead End (1937), which gained her her first Oscar nomination; and The Amazing Dr. Clitterhouse (1938), and from 1937 to 1940 she also performed on the…

David Mamet: …1996) concerns dishonest business practices; A Life in the Theatre (produced 1977) explores the teacher-student relationship; and Speed-the-Plow (produced 1988) is a black comedy about avaricious Hollywood scriptwriters.

Greek literature: Literature after 1922: … I zoí en tafo (1930; Life in the Tomb), a journal of life in the trenches in World War I; Argo (2 vol., 1933 and 1936) by Yórgos Theotokás, about a group of students attempting to find their way through life in the turbulent 1920s; and Eroica (1937) by Kosmás…

libido, concept originated by Sigmund Freud to signify the instinctual physiological or psychic energy associated with sexual urges and, in his later writings, with all constructive human activity. In the latter sense of eros, or life instinct, libido was opposed by thanatos, the death instinct and

life insurance, method by which large groups of individuals equalize the burden of financial loss from death by distributing funds to the beneficiaries of those who die. Life insurance is most developed in wealthy countries, where it has become a major channel of saving and investment. Upon the

Paul Durcan: Life Is a Dream (2009) is a wide-ranging collection of poems that Durcan published between 1967 and 2007. His 22nd volume of poetry, Praise in Which I Live and Move and Have My Being, appeared in 2012.

comedy: Divine comedies in the West and East: …Pedro Calderón de la Barca’s Life Is a Dream (1635) is an example; on the operatic stage, so is Mozart’s Magic Flute (1791), in spirit and form so like Shakespeare’s Tempest, to which it has often been compared. In later drama, Henrik Ibsen’s Little Eyolf (1894) and August Strindberg’s To…

Emir Kusturica: The 21st century: …decades: Život je čudo (2004; Life Is a Miracle) and Zavet (2007; Promise Me This). The former deals with life in a small Bosnian town as the war approaches, and the latter concerns the vow given by a grandfather to his grandson. Though both films are typically heartwarming, they are…

Roberto Benigni: Life Is Beautiful, however, established Benigni as an international star. The movie—which he wrote, directed, and acted in—was released in the United States in 1998 and became one of the highest-grossing non-English-language films in American box-office history. At the 1999 Academy Awards ceremony, Benigni became…

Milan Kundera: …novel, Život je jinde (1969; Life Is Elsewhere), about a hapless, romantic-minded hero who thoroughly embraces the Communist takeover of 1948, was forbidden Czech publication. Kundera had participated in the brief but heady liberalization of Czechoslovakia in 1967–68, and after the Soviet occupation of the country he refused to admit…