Paul Felix Lazarsfeld: …served as director of the Office of Radio Research, a Rockefeller project at Princeton University (1937–40), and, when the project was transferred to Columbia University in 1940 (it was later renamed the Bureau of Applied Social Research), he continued as its director and was appointed to the sociology department of…

warning system: Radio sensors: Radio receivers can be used to detect and locate enemy radio. Enemy radars can be located in much the same way. Messages can be intercepted. This form of warning has been combated by radio silence and by spoofing, the transmission of signals intended…

soap opera, broadcast dramatic serial program, so called in the United States because most of its major sponsors for many years were manufacturers of soap and detergents. The soap opera is characterized by a permanent cast of actors, a continuing story, emphasis on dialogue instead of action, a

personal computer: From hobby computers to Apple: ), Apple II, the Tandy Radio Shack TRS-80, and the Commodore Business Machines Personal Electronic Transactor (PET). These machines used eight-bit microprocessors (which process information in groups of eight bits, or binary digits, at a time) and possessed rather limited memory capacity—i.e., the ability to address a given quantity of…

radio source, in astronomy, any of various objects in the universe that emit relatively large amounts of radio waves. Nearly all types of astronomical objects give off some radio radiation, but the strongest sources of such emissions include pulsars, certain nebulas, quasars, and radio galaxies. In

radio telescope: Principles of operation: Because the spectrometer had a narrow frequency range, this procedure was extremely time-consuming, and it greatly restricted observations. Modern radio telescopes observe simultaneously at a large number of frequencies by dividing the signals up into as many as several thousand separate frequency channels that can range over…

telecommunications media: The radio-frequency spectrum: Before 1930 the radio spectrum above 30 megahertz was virtually empty of man-made signals. Today, civilian radio signals populate the radio spectrum in eight frequency bands, ranging from very low frequency (VLF), starting at 3 kilohertz, and extending to extremely high frequency (EHF),…

radio technology, transmission and detection of communication signals consisting of electromagnetic waves that travel through the air in a straight line or by reflection from the ionosphere or from a communications satellite. Electromagnetic radiation includes light as well as radio waves, and the

Ireland: Music and dance: …in Dublin and maintained by Radio Telefís Éireann (RTÉ; the state-owned broadcasting company), the RTÉ National Symphony Orchestra and the RTÉ Concert Orchestra are the country’s principal orchestral groups. Ireland’s leading contemporary music ensemble, Concorde, commissions and performs the work of contemporary composers. New music is supported by the Contemporary…

radio telescope, astronomical instrument consisting of a radio receiver and an antenna system that is used to detect radio-frequency radiation between wavelengths of about 10 metres (30 megahertz [MHz]) and 1 mm (300 gigahertz [GHz]) emitted by extraterrestrial sources, such as stars, galaxies, and

Malaysia: Media and publishing: …in East Malaysia, the government-operated Radio Television Malaysia (RTM) broadcasts in Malay, English, and assorted Chinese languages, as well as in various indigenous languages, such as Iban in Sarawak. RTM also broadcasts internationally in Arabic, English, Chinese, and the national languages of several of Malaysia’s Southeast Asian neighbours.

radio: Pirates and public-service radio: …1958; it was followed by Radio Veronica two years later. A Swedish pirate station began operating in 1961, and Radio Veronica provided transmissions into Britain the same year. Radio Caroline began popular music broadcasts into Britain in 1964. Shipboard stations were soon also stationed off Italy, France, and New Zealand.…

radio wave, wave from the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum at lower frequencies than microwaves. The wavelengths of radio waves range from thousands of metres to 30 cm. These correspond to frequencies as low as 3 Hz and as high as 1 gigahertz (109 Hz). Radio-wave communications signals

geochronology: An absolute age framework for the stratigraphic time scale: In his book Radio-activity (1904), Rutherford explained that radioactivity results from the spontaneous disintegration of an unstable element into a lighter element, which may decay further until a stable element is finally created. This process of radioactive decay involves the emission of positively charged particles (later to be…

particle accelerator: Synchrotrons: The radio-frequency accelerating devices, usually called cavities, operate on the same principle as a short section of a linear accelerator. The useful beam may be either the accelerated particles that have been extracted from the ring by special magnets or secondary particles ejected from a target…

electron tube: Electron motion in a vacuum: …devices for generating or amplifying radio-frequency (RF) power.

fusion reactor: Toroidal confinement: A technique known as radio-frequency (RF) current drive employs electromagnetic radiation to generate a steady-state current. Electromagnetic waves are injected into the plasma so that they propagate within the plasma in one direction around the torus. The speed of the waves is chosen to equal roughly the average speed…

radio-frequency heating, process of heating materials through the application of radio waves of high frequency—i.e., above 70,000 hertz (cycles per second). Two methods of radio-frequency heating have been developed. One of these, induction heating, has proved highly effective for heating metals

radio-frequency identification (RFID), method of wireless communication that uses electromagnetic waves to identify and track tags attached to objects, people, or animals. The attached tags, called RFID tags, store digitally encoded data that can be read by an RFID reader. The reader does not need

spectroscopy: Radio-frequency spectroscopy: The energy states of atoms, ions, molecules, and other particles are determined primarily by the mutual attraction of the electrons

telecommunications media: The radio-frequency spectrum: Before 1930 the radio spectrum above 30 megahertz was virtually empty of man-made signals. Today, civilian radio signals populate the radio spectrum in eight frequency bands, ranging from very low frequency (VLF), starting at 3 kilohertz, and extending to extremely high frequency (EHF),…

RKO Radio Pictures, Inc., American motion-picture studio that made some notable films in the 1930s and ’40s. Radio-Keith-Orpheum originated in 1928 from the merger of the Radio Corporation of America, the Keith-Albee-Orpheum theatre chain, and the American Pathé production firm. Though it was one

warning system: Nuclear detectors: For atmospheric or space explosions, radio-pulse receivers and light flash and acoustic detectors are used, as well as devices to measure fallout. Aircraft and rockets can be used to collect radioactive debris, while high-altitude satellites carry detectors for gamma rays and other emissions.

Spain: Television and radio: …of the government-owned and -controlled Radio-Televisión Española (RTVE). They still broadcast today, solely in Castilian, and have been split into separate organizations: Radio Nacional de España (RNE) and Televisión Española (TVE). Radio Exterior de España (REE) provides overseas services, broadcasting in 10 languages.

Thomas Middelhoff: …controlling interest in the Luxembourg-based RTL Group, Europe’s largest producer of radio, television, and movie content and operator of numerous radio and TV stations across the continent.

ion-exchange reaction: In the laboratory: In the process called “activation analysis,” an unknown sample to be analyzed is bombarded with neutrons, and the radioactive elements thus formed are separated by anion-exchange procedures. Such analysis is especially valuable in separating minor metallic constituents from samples containing large amounts of other substances. The technique has been…

Marjane Satrapi: From Embroideries and Chicken with Plums to Woman, Life, Freedom: …medication, becomes a murderer, and Radioactive (2019), a biopic about Marie Curie.

Earth sciences: Radiometric dating: In 1905, shortly after the discovery of radioactivity, the American chemist Bertram Boltwood suggested that lead is one of the disintegration products of uranium, in which case the older a uranium-bearing mineral the greater should be its proportional part of lead. Analyzing specimens…

radioactivity, property exhibited by certain types of matter of emitting energy and subatomic particles spontaneously. It is, in essence, an attribute of individual atomic nuclei. An unstable nucleus will decompose spontaneously, or decay, into a more stable configuration but will do so only in a

pharmaceutical industry: Radiopharmaceuticals: Radioactive dosage forms, or radiopharmaceuticals, are substances that contain one or more radioactive atoms and are used for diagnosis or treatment of disease. In some cases the radioactive atoms are incorporated into a larger molecule. The larger molecule helps to direct the radioactive atoms…

fallout, deposition of radioactive materials on Earth from the atmosphere. The terms rain out and snow out are sometimes used to specify such deposition during precipitant weather. Radioactivity in the atmosphere may arise from (1) natural causes, (2) nuclear or thermonuclear bomb explosions, and

rock: Radioactive heat generation: …and radiation, is converted to heat; it has been an important factor in affecting the temperature gradient and thermal evolution of the Earth. Deep-seated elevated temperatures provide the heat that causes rock to deform plastically and to move, thus generating to a large extent the processes of plate tectonics—plate motions,…

therapeutics: Radiation therapy: Radioactive implants in the form of metal needles or “seeds” are used to treat some cancers, such as those of the prostate and uterine cervix. They can deliver high doses of radiation directly into the tumour with less effect on distant tissues.

radioactive isotope, any of several species of the same chemical element with different masses whose nuclei are unstable and dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting radiation in the form of alpha, beta, and gamma rays. A brief treatment of radioactive isotopes follows. For full treatment,

angiosperm: Process of phloem transport: …done with the aid of radioactive substances; for example, when radioactive carbon dioxide administered to an illuminated leaf is incorporated into sugar during photosynthesis and carried from the leaf, the velocity of this movement can be measured by determining the arrival of radioactivity at given points along the stem. Whole…

radioactive isotope, any of several species of the same chemical element with different masses whose nuclei are unstable and dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting radiation in the form of alpha, beta, and gamma rays. A brief treatment of radioactive isotopes follows. For full treatment,

human cardiovascular system: Noninvasive techniques: Radionuclide cineangiography is a further development of radionuclide imaging. These techniques are used to assess myocardial damage, left ventricular function, valve regurgitation, and, with the use of radionuclide potassium analogues, myocardial perfusion.

human cardiovascular system: Noninvasive techniques: Radionuclide imaging (radioactive nuclides) provides a safe, quantitative evaluation of cardiac function and a direct measurement of myocardial blood flow and myocardial metabolism. Radionuclide imaging is used to evaluate the temporal progress of cardiac disease, hemodynamics, and the extent of myocardial damage during and after…

nuclear medicine: In radioisotope scanning (also called radionuclide scanning), a radioisotope is introduced into the body, usually by means of intravenous injection. The isotope is then taken up in different amounts by different organs. Its distribution can be determined by recording the radiation it emits, and through charting…

radioactive series, any of four independent sets of unstable heavy atomic nuclei that decay through a sequence of alpha and beta decays until a stable nucleus is achieved. These four chains of consecutive parent and daughter nuclei begin and end among elements with atomic numbers higher than 81,

nuclear power: Radioactive-waste disposal: Spent nuclear reactor fuel and the waste stream generated by fuel reprocessing contain radioactive materials and must be conditioned for permanent disposal. The amount of waste coming out of the nuclear fuel cycle is very small compared with the amount of waste generated…

radioactivity, property exhibited by certain types of matter of emitting energy and subatomic particles spontaneously. It is, in essence, an attribute of individual atomic nuclei. An unstable nucleus will decompose spontaneously, or decay, into a more stable configuration but will do so only in a

morphology: Chemical techniques: …extended by the techniques of autoradiography and histochemistry. In the former, a tissue is supplied with a radioactive substance and allowed to utilize it for an appropriate period of time, after which the tissue is prepared and placed in contact with a special photographic emulsion. Silver grains in the emulsion…

radiation: Historical background: …a new branch of science—namely, radiobiology.

carbon-14 dating, method of age determination that depends upon the decay to nitrogen of radiocarbon (carbon-14). Carbon-14 is continually formed in nature by the interaction of neutrons with nitrogen-14 in the Earth’s atmosphere; the neutrons required for this reaction are produced by cosmic rays

wrist: …for the forearm bones; the radiocarpal joint, between the radius and the first row of carpal bones, involved in wrist flexion and extension; the midcarpal joint, between two of the rows of carpal bones; and various intercarpal joints, between adjacent carpal bones within the rows. The numerous bones and their…

chemical analysis: Radiochemical methods: During use of the radiochemical methods, spontaneous emissions of particles or electromagnetic radiation from unstable atomic nuclei are monitored. The intensity of the emitted particles or electromagnetic radiation is used for quantitative analysis, and the energy of the emissions is used for qualitative…

International Telecommunication Union: …and financial services; (5) the Radiocommunications Sector, which was formed by the merger of those activities of the former International Consultative Radio Committee and the former International Frequency Registration Board that were concerned with the assignment of radio frequencies; (6) the Telecommunication Standardization Sector, which was formed by the merger…

radiology: Diagnosis: X-rays were discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, a German professor of physics, in his laboratory in the University of Würzburg on Nov. 8, 1895. Early on, in radiodiagnosis, use was made of three of the properties of X-rays—their ability to penetrate the tissues, their…

Algeria: Media and publishing: Radiodiffusion Télévision Algérienne operates as a broadcasting institution under the Ministry of Information and Culture. Its three radio channels offer programming in Arabic, Kabyle, and, on its international channel, a mixture of French, English, and Spanish. The television network—with two channels—transmits to most of the…

Morocco: Media and publishing: …government-owned radio and television network, Radiodiffusion Télévision Marocaine (RTM), broadcasts throughout the country. Radio broadcasts are in Arabic, French, Tamazight, Spanish, and English, while television is broadcast in Arabic, Tamazight, and French. In addition, a private television network is headquartered in Casablanca and a private radio network in Tangier.

Ezequiel Martínez Estrada: …Radiografía de la pampa (1933; X-Ray of the Pampa), a comprehensive psychological study of the Argentine character laden with fatalistic overtones. La cabeza de Goliat: Microscopía de Buenos Aires (1940; “The Head of Goliath: A Microscopic Study of Buenos Aires”) treats the people of Buenos Aires and continues the themes…

betatron: …use in medical and industrial radiography. Portable betatrons, operating at energy levels of approximately 7 MeV, have been designed for specialized applications in industrial radiography—for example, to examine concrete, steel, and cast-metal construction for structural integrity.

Radiohead, British rock group that was arguably the most accomplished art-rock band of the early 21st century. This revered quintet made some of the most majestic—if most angst-saturated—music of the postmodern era. Formed in the mid-1980s at Abingdon School in Oxfordshire, Radiohead comprised

Rosalyn S. Yalow: …awarded for her development of radioimmunoassay (RIA), an extremely sensitive technique for measuring minute quantities of biologically active substances.

radioactive isotope, any of several species of the same chemical element with different masses whose nuclei are unstable and dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting radiation in the form of alpha, beta, and gamma rays. A brief treatment of radioactive isotopes follows. For full treatment,

Robert Klein: Music and acting: …appeared in are Hooper (1978), Radioland Murders (1994), One Fine Day (1996), Primary Colors (1998), The Safety of Objects (2001), Two Weeks Notice (2002), How to Lose a Guy in 10 Days (2003), Ira & Abby (2006), Reign Over Me (2007),

radiolarian, any protozoan of the class Polycystinea (superclass Actinopoda), found in the upper layers of all oceans. Radiolarians, which are mostly spherically symmetrical, are known for their complex and beautifully sculptured, though minute, skeletons, referred to as tests. Usually composed of

radiolarian, any protozoan of the class Polycystinea (superclass Actinopoda), found in the upper layers of all oceans. Radiolarians, which are mostly spherically symmetrical, are known for their complex and beautifully sculptured, though minute, skeletons, referred to as tests. Usually composed of

diatomaceous earth: Similar siliceous rocks, called radiolarian earth and radiolarite, are formed from the latticelike opaline skeletons of Radiolaria.

ooze: The siliceous oozes include radiolarian ooze, comprising essentially brown clay with more than 30 percent of the skeletons of warm-water protozoa, and diatom ooze, containing the frustules (tiny shells) of diatoms. The siliceous oozes exist only where the rate of deposition of diatoms or radiolarians is greater than the…

dirty bomb, explosive device designed to scatter radioactive material, hence the adjective dirty. Unlike an atomic bomb’s explosive power, which comes from a nuclear chain reaction, the explosive energy of the dirty bomb comes from ordinary conventional explosives such as dynamite or TNT. When the

radiology, branch of medicine using radiation for the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Radiology originally involved the use of X-rays in the diagnosis of disease and the use of X-rays, gamma rays, and other forms of ionizing radiation in the treatment of disease. In more recent years radiology

radiology: Diagnosis: X-rays were discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, a German professor of physics, in his laboratory in the University of Würzburg on Nov. 8, 1895. Early on, in radiodiagnosis, use was made of three of the properties of X-rays—their ability to penetrate the tissues, their…

luminescence: Radioluminescence: Radioactive elements can emit alpha particles (helium nuclei), electrons, and gamma rays (high-energy electromagnetic radiation). The term radioluminescence, therefore, means that an appropriate material is excited to luminescence by a radioactive substance. When alpha particles bombard a crystal phosphor, tiny scintillations are visible to…

radiation: Radiation chemical reactions: …as well as (parent) positive-ion fragmentation and ion-molecule reactions. Some such consequences are summarized for a few cases.

radiometer, instrument for detecting or measuring radiant energy. The term is applied in particular to devices used to measure infrared radiation. Radiometers are of various types that differ in their method of measurement or detection. Those that function by means of an increase in the temperature

dating: Principles of isotopic dating: …of the fundamental equation for radiometric age determination, in which N0 is the number of radioactive atoms present in a sample at time zero, N is the number of radioactive atoms present in the sample today, e is the base of natural logarithms (equal to about 2.72), λ is the…

Earth sciences: Radiometric dating: In 1905, shortly after the discovery of radioactivity, the American chemist Bertram Boltwood suggested that lead is one of the disintegration products of uranium, in which case the older a uranium-bearing mineral the greater should be its proportional part of lead. Analyzing specimens…

mineral processing: Optical separation: …using gamma radiation, is called radiometric separation.

radio: Mexico: At the same time, the radionovela (“soap opera”), a format that would greatly expand with television, got its start. Only in the 1940s were regulations loosened sufficiently to allow use of imported programs and recorded music. It was during this decade that Emilio Azcárraga became the central figure in Mexican…

radioactive isotope, any of several species of the same chemical element with different masses whose nuclei are unstable and dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting radiation in the form of alpha, beta, and gamma rays. A brief treatment of radioactive isotopes follows. For full treatment,

human cardiovascular system: Noninvasive techniques: Radionuclide cineangiography is a further development of radionuclide imaging. These techniques are used to assess myocardial damage, left ventricular function, valve regurgitation, and, with the use of radionuclide potassium analogues, myocardial perfusion.

human cardiovascular system: Noninvasive techniques: Radionuclide imaging (radioactive nuclides) provides a safe, quantitative evaluation of cardiac function and a direct measurement of myocardial blood flow and myocardial metabolism. Radionuclide imaging is used to evaluate the temporal progress of cardiac disease, hemodynamics, and the extent of myocardial damage during and after…

pharmaceutical industry: Radiopharmaceuticals: Radioactive dosage forms, or radiopharmaceuticals, are substances that contain one or more radioactive atoms and are used for diagnosis or treatment of disease. In some cases the radioactive atoms are incorporated into a larger molecule. The larger molecule helps to direct the radioactive atoms…

radiation: Effects on the cell: …as cancer cells) are more radiosensitive than nondividing cells. As noted above, a dose of 1–2 Sv is sufficient to kill the average dividing cell, whereas nondividing cells can usually withstand many times as much radiation without overt signs of injury. It is when cells attempt to divide for the…

computer graphics: Shading and texturing: …re-created in computer graphics by radiosity techniques, which model light as energy rather than rays and which look at the effects of all the elements in a scene on the appearance of each object. For example, a brightly coloured object will cast a slight glow of the same colour on…

radiosonde, balloon-borne instrument for making atmospheric measurements, such as temperature, pressure, and humidity, and radioing the information back to a ground station. Special helium-filled meteorological balloons made of high-quality neoprene rubber are employed for elevating the radiosonde

radiotelegraphy, radio communication by means of Morse Code or other coded signals. The radio carrier is modulated by changing its amplitude, frequency, or phase in accordance with the Morse dot-dash system or some other code. At the receiver the coded modulation is recovered by an appropriate

broadcasting: Partnership of public authorities and private interests: …example is Radiotelevisione Italiana (RAI), originally founded in 1924. In 1927 an agreement was made with the government for a 25-year broadcasting concession. The charter was extended to cover television in 1952. Two years later a government agency acquired control, and in 1985 it owned 99 percent of the…

radiation therapy, the use of ionizing radiation (high-energy radiation that displaces electrons from atoms and molecules) to destroy cancer cells. Radiation has been present throughout the evolution of life on Earth. However, with the discovery of X-rays in 1895 by German physicist Wilhelm Conrad

Otto Hahn: Early life: …radioactive substance, which he called radiothorium, was present. Fired by this early success and encouraged by Ramsay, who thought highly of him, he decided to continue with research on radioactivity rather than go into industry. With Ramsay’s support he obtained a post at the University of Berlin. Before taking it…

human cardiovascular system: Noninvasive techniques: … in the myocardium using the radiotracer method (i.e., a radioactive isotope replaces a stable element in a compound, which is then followed as it is distributed through the body). Positron emission tomography uses positron radionuclides that can be incorporated into true metabolic substrates and consequently can be used to chart…

wrist: …several component joints: the distal radioulnar joint, which acts as a pivot for the forearm bones; the radiocarpal joint, between the radius and the first row of carpal bones, involved in wrist flexion and extension; the midcarpal joint, between two of the rows of carpal bones; and various intercarpal joints,…

radish, (Raphanus sativus), annual or biennial plant in the mustard family (Brassicaceae), grown for its large succulent taproot. The common radish is likely of Asian or Mediterranean origin and is cultivated worldwide. Radish roots are low in calories and are usually eaten raw; the young leaves

Aleksandr Nikolayevich Radishchev was a writer who founded the revolutionary tradition in Russian literature and thought. Radishchev, a nobleman, was educated in Moscow (1757–62), at the St. Petersburg Corps of Pages (1763–66), and at Leipzig, where he studied law (1766–71). His career as a civil

Pierre-Esprit Radisson was a French explorer and fur trader who served both France and England in Canada. Radisson arrived in New France possibly in 1651 and settled at Trois-Rivières. In that year he was captured and adopted by the Iroquois, with whom he chose to remain despite opportunities to

radium (Ra), radioactive chemical element, the heaviest of the alkaline-earth metals of Group 2 (IIa) of the periodic table. Radium is a silvery white metal that does not occur free in nature. (Read Marie Curie’s 1926 Britannica essay on radium.) atomic number88 stablest isotope226 melting

radon (Rn), chemical element, a heavy radioactive gas of Group 18 (noble gases) of the periodic table, generated by the radioactive decay of radium. (Radon was originally called radium emanation.) Radon is a colourless gas, 7.5 times heavier than air and more than 100 times heavier than hydrogen.

radiation: Historical background: …Pierre Curie, the co-discoverer of radium, deliberately produced a similar burn on himself. Beginning about 1925, a number of women employed in applying luminescent paint that contained radium to clock and instrument dials became ill with anemia and lesions of the jawbones and mouth; some of them subsequently developed bone…

poison: Local toxicities of common alpha-particle emitters: For example, radium-224, which is deposited mainly on bone surfaces, has been used in Europe to treat ankylosing spondylitis. Because of its short half-life (3.6 days), it affects only the bone surface and not the bone marrow. Its major toxicity is the production of bone cancer. Like…

radium: Occurrence, properties, and uses: …known; their half-lives, except for radium-226 (1,600 years) and radium-228 (5.75 years), are less than a few weeks. The long-lived radium-226 is found in nature as a result of its continuous formation from uranium-238 decay. Radium thus occurs in all uranium ores, but it is more widely distributed because it…

radium: Occurrence, properties, and uses: …for radium-226 (1,600 years) and radium-228 (5.75 years), are less than a few weeks. The long-lived radium-226 is found in nature as a result of its continuous formation from uranium-238 decay. Radium thus occurs in all uranium ores, but it is more widely distributed because it forms water-soluble compounds; Earth’s…

radius, in anatomy, the outer of the two bones of the forearm when viewed with the palm facing forward. All land vertebrates have this bone. In humans it is shorter than the other bone of the forearm, the ulna. The head of the radius is disk-shaped; its upper concave surface articulates with the

mechanics: Circular motion: …be specified by giving the radius r of the circle and the angle θ between the position vector and the x-axis. Although r is constant, θ increases uniformly with time t, such that θ = ωt, or dθ/dt = ω, where ω is the angular frequency in equation (26). Contrary…

gauge: …the most common types are radius gauges, which are packs of blades with both concave and convex circular profiles that are used to check the radii of grooves and corners, and screw-thread pitch gauges, which are blades with triangular serrations spaced to correspond with various pitches, or numbers of threads…

perturbation: …sequence converges is called the radius of convergence of the solution.

mechanics: Rotation about a moving axis: … is a distance called the radius of gyration. Comparison to equation (79) shows that k is a measure of how far from the centre of mass the mass of the body is concentrated. Using equations (87) and (88) in equation (86), one finds that

atomic radius, half the distance between the nuclei of identical neighbouring atoms in the solid form of an element. An atom has no rigid spherical boundary, but it may be thought of as a tiny, dense positive nucleus surrounded by a diffuse negative cloud of electrons. The value of atomic radii

base, in mathematics, an arbitrarily chosen whole number greater than 1 in terms of which any number can be expressed as a sum of that base raised to various powers. The decimal number system that is commonly used expresses all numbers in base 10. For example, 354.76 = (3 × 102) + (5 × 101) + (4 ×