William Castle: King of the Gimmick: …directing for his final film, Shanks. The gruesome production featured Marcel Marceau as a puppeteer who uses dead bodies instead of marionettes.

Shanksville, borough, Somerset county, southwestern Pennsylvania. It lies on the Stonycreek River in the Laurel Highlands of the Allegheny Mountains about 17 miles (27 km) south of Johnstown. It is best known for its proximity to the site of the crash of United Airlines flight 93, one of the planes

Gordon Parks: Literature and film: …collection of essays, the novel Shannon (1981), and the poetry, photograph, and watercolor collection Arias in Silence (1994).

Ireland: Air facilities: …airports are located at Dublin, Shannon, and Cork, and there are several regional airports. Dublin Airport Authority, a public limited-liability company, has responsibility for the operation, management, and development of the three major international airports. Shannon was the world’s first duty-free airport; a state-sponsored company offers substantial tax breaks and…

information theory: Entropy: …determines a limit, known as Shannon’s entropy, on the best average (that is, the shortest) attainable encoding scheme. The theoretical best encoding scheme can be attained only in special circumstances. Finally, an encoding scheme can be found as close to the theoretical best as desired, although its use may be…

Bill Traylor: Charles Shannon, a young white artist, discovered Traylor drawing on Monroe Street in 1939. Immediately taken with his work, Shannon bought some drawings and began supplying Traylor with materials. In 1940 he arranged to exhibit about 100 of Traylor’s works at the New South Gallery…

Claude Shannon was an American mathematician and electrical engineer who laid the theoretical foundations for digital circuits and information theory, a mathematical communication model. After graduating from the University of Michigan in 1936 with bachelor’s degrees in mathematics and electrical

Claude Shannon was an American mathematician and electrical engineer who laid the theoretical foundations for digital circuits and information theory, a mathematical communication model. After graduating from the University of Michigan in 1936 with bachelor’s degrees in mathematics and electrical

Del Shannon was an American singer, songwriter, and guitarist who was one of the first white rock and rollers to write his own songs. He is best known for the pop music classic “Runaway” (1961). After playing in bands as a teenager in Grand Rapids, Michigan, Shannon released his first single,

Saturday Night Live: Myers, Adam Sandler, Molly Shannon, Will Ferrell, Jimmy Fallon, Tina Fey, Amy Poehler, Andy Samberg, Jason Sudeikis, Kristen Wiig, and Kate McKinnon. The anchor

River Shannon, the longest river in Ireland, rising in northwestern County Cavan and flowing for about 161 miles (259 km) in a southerly direction to enter the Atlantic Ocean via a 70-mile (113-kilometre) estuary below Limerick city. It drains an area of 6,060 square miles (15,695 square km). As

Scott Shannon: An avid fan and student of Top 40 radio since childhood, Michael Moore fashioned his on-air name, Scott Shannon, as a tribute to two of his favourite announcers, Scott Muni and Tom Shannon. Beginning at a station in Mobile, Alabama, in 1969, he became the…

information science: …post-World War II developments: the Shannon-Weaver information theory model, Norbert Wiener’s conception of the science of cybernetics, and rapid advances in the design and production of electronic computers. These innovations pointed to a new field of study in which many disciplines could be merged under the unifying idea of “information.”…

India: The Delhi sultanate: …of Ghazna by the rival Shansabānīs of Ghūr in 1150–51. The Ghūrids, who inhabited the region between Ghazna and Herāt, rose rapidly in power during the last half of the 12th century, partly because of the changing balance of power that resulted from the westward movement of the non-Muslim Qara…

shanshu, in Chinese religion, popular texts devoted to a moral accounting of actions leading to positive and negative merit. These works often combine traditional Confucian notions of filial piety (xiao) and reciprocity, Daoist ideas of taking no action contrary to nature (wuwei; literally

Tao Qian: …(as opposed to the then-fashionable shanshui [“mountains and rivers”] poetry). Essentially a Daoist in his philosophical outlook on life and death, he also freely adopted the elements of Confucianism and Buddhism that most appealed to him.

Ma Yansong: …whose designs reflect his “Shanshui City” concept, which calls for balancing the natural environment, the urban landscape, and society in new ways through architecture.

Shanxi, sheng (province) of northern China. Roughly rectangular in shape, Shanxi is bounded by the provinces of Hebei to the east, Henan to the south and southeast, and Shaanxi to the west and by the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region to the north. The name Shanxi (“West of the Mountains”—i.e., west

mountain: The Himalayan chain: …Zone in Siberia and the Shansi Graben in northern China seem to have resulted from the east-southeastward extrusion of material out of India’s path. Moreover, crustal thickening in the Tibetan Plateau has ceased, and now east–west extension of the plateau contributes to the eastward extrusion. The plateau is laced with…

Indian philosophy: Early theories of kingship and state: In the Shanti Parvan (“Book of Consolation,” 12th book) of the Mahabharata, there is also a notable account of the origin of kingship and of rajadharma, or the dharma (law) of the king as king. Bhishma, who is discoursing, refers with approval to two different theories of…

Shantiniketan, former town, north-central West Bengal state, northeastern India. It is now part of the town of Bolpur. Shantiniketan (Sanskrit: “The Abode of Peace”) began as Shantiniketan Ashram, a meditation centre founded and endowed in 1863 by Maharishi Debendranath, the father of the

Santipur, city, eastern West Bengal state, northeastern India. It lies just north of the Hugli (Hooghly) River about 55 miles (90 km) north of Kolkata (Calcutta). Santipur was the centre of large factories (trading stations) under the British East India Company, and Santipur handwoven muslins had a

Shantou, city in eastern Guangdong sheng (province), southern China. It lies on the coast of the South China Sea a short distance west of the mouth of the Han River, which, with its tributary, the Mei River, drains most of eastern Guangdong. The Han forms a delta, and Shantou is on an inlet that

Shantou wares, various types of porcelain produced mostly in Fujian province, southeastern China, during the 16th and 17th centuries. Most pieces were exported to Japan, Southeast Asia, India, and the Middle East; some went to the European market. At one time it was believed that this porcelain was

Shandong, northern coastal sheng (province) of China, lying across the Yellow Sea from the Korean peninsula. Shandong is China’s second most populous province, its population exceeded only by that of Henan. The name Shandong, which means “East of Mountains,” was first officially used during the Jin

China: The Shandong Hills: These hills are basically composed of extremely ancient crystalline shales and granites of early Precambrian age (i.e., older than about 2.5 billion years) and of somewhat younger sedimentary rocks dating to about 540–420 million years ago. Faults have played a major role in…

ornithopod: …into the hadrosaurines, such as Shantungosaurus, and the lambeosaurines, including Parasaurolophus and Lambeosaurus, which sported strange bony crests on their skulls. Hadrosaurs commonly reached lengths of 9–11 metres and were among the most abundant dinosaurs in North America by the end of the Cretaceous Period. They are known to have…

shanty, also spelled Chantey, or Chanty (from French chanter, “to sing”), English-language sailors’ work song dating from the days of sailing ships, when manipulating heavy sails, by means of ropes, from positions on the deck constituted a large part of a sailor’s work. The leader, or shantyman,

shanty: The leader, or shantyman, chosen for his seamanship rather than his musical talent, stood at the leading position on the rope, while the sailors crouched along the rope behind him. The shantyman would intone a line of a song and the group respond in chorus, heaving on the…

Argentina: Housing of Argentina: …substandard housing in tenements or shantytowns. More than two-fifths of homes in the city of Buenos Aires are rented. Apartments and condominiums account for three-fourths of homes in the capital but only about one-eighth of those in the surrounding suburbs. At least one-fifth of Argentines occupy substandard housing, lacking indoor…

biogeography: …of American botanists Forrest Shreve, Homer L. Shantz, Hugh M. Raup, and others.

Shanxi, sheng (province) of northern China. Roughly rectangular in shape, Shanxi is bounded by the provinces of Hebei to the east, Henan to the south and southeast, and Shaanxi to the west and by the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region to the north. The name Shanxi (“West of the Mountains”—i.e., west

Henan: Relief: …steep eastern edge of the Shanxi Plateau, rising in places above 5,000 feet (1,524 metres). They are part of the Taihang fold system of Permian times (i.e., about 250 to 300 million years ago), have a general northeast-to-southwest trend, and mark the northern border of the province.

Shanxi: Government and society: Shanxi University, founded in Taiyuan by an English missionary in 1902, was one of the first in China to offer Western curricula in liberal arts, law, and medicine. Since 1949 technical schools for agriculture, mining, forestry, and machine technology have been established, as have universities,…

Grand Canal: …centuries has been called the Southern Grand Canal (Nan Yunhe). This ancient waterway was first constructed as early as the 4th century bce, was rebuilt in 607 ce, and has been used ever since.

Shao Yong was a Chinese philosopher who greatly influenced the development of the idealist school of Neo-Confucianism (see Confucianism). Shao Yong’s mathematical ideas also influenced the 18th-century European philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the development of a binary arithmetical

tai chi chuan: …at the Buddhist monastery of Shao Lin were performing exercises emulating the five creatures: bear, bird, deer, monkey, and tiger. The snake was added later, and, by the early Ming dynasty (1368), the yin and yang principles had been added to harmonize the whole. An assimilation of these developments, the…

Shao Yong was a Chinese philosopher who greatly influenced the development of the idealist school of Neo-Confucianism (see Confucianism). Shao Yong’s mathematical ideas also influenced the 18th-century European philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the development of a binary arithmetical

Shao Yong was a Chinese philosopher who greatly influenced the development of the idealist school of Neo-Confucianism (see Confucianism). Shao Yong’s mathematical ideas also influenced the 18th-century European philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the development of a binary arithmetical

Shao Yong was a Chinese philosopher who greatly influenced the development of the idealist school of Neo-Confucianism (see Confucianism). Shao Yong’s mathematical ideas also influenced the 18th-century European philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the development of a binary arithmetical

Shaoxing, city, northeastern Zhejiang sheng (province), eastern China. It is situated in the centre of the eastern half of the coastal plain south of Hangzhou Bay. Shaoxing lies along the Hang-Yong Canal (the local section is also called the Zhedong Canal)—which joins Ningbo to the east with

Shaoguan, city, northern Guangdong sheng (province), southern China. It lies along the Bei River at the point where it is formed by the junction of the Wu River, flowing southeast from the borders of Hunan, and the Zhen River, flowing southwest from the borders of Jiangxi province. Shaoguan thus

Shaowu, city in northwestern Fujian sheng (province), China. It is situated on the upper course of the Futun River, some 30 miles (50 km) from the border of Jiangxi province. Shaowu is an important communication centre, located on the railway line from Jiangxi to the coastal ports of Xiamen (Amoy)

Shaoyang, city, central Hunan sheng (province), southeastern China. It lies in the middle basin of the Zi River. A county named Zhaoling was established at the site of Shaoyang in the 2nd century bce. In the mid-3rd century ce it became the seat of a commandery called Zhaoling. In 280 the name was

Shaoguan, city, northern Guangdong sheng (province), southern China. It lies along the Bei River at the point where it is formed by the junction of the Wu River, flowing southeast from the borders of Hunan, and the Zhen River, flowing southwest from the borders of Jiangxi province. Shaoguan thus

Jet Li: …debut in Shaolin Si (The Shaolin Temple) as a young man who learns martial arts from the monks at the famed Shaolin Temple (noted as the legendary birthplace of Chinese martial arts). Shaolin Si was an enormous hit (with two sequels) and was credited with reviving interest in the…

Shaolin Temple, Buddhist monastery in Henan province, China, that was founded in 495. In 464 an Indian monk named Bada, the 28th successor in a line of religious leaders that could be traced back to Buddha, arrived in China to spread Buddhist teachings. The Shaolin Temple, the construction of which

Jet Li: …debut in Shaolin Si (The Shaolin Temple) as a young man who learns martial arts from the monks at the famed Shaolin Temple (noted as the legendary birthplace of Chinese martial arts). Shaolin Si was an enormous hit (with two sequels) and was credited with reviving interest in the…

Lin Zexu was a leading Chinese scholar and official of the Qing (Manchu) dynasty, known for his role in the events leading up to the first Opium War (1839–42) between Britain and China. He was a proponent of the revitalization of traditional Chinese thought and institutions, a movement that became

Hunan: Drainage: One of these schemes—the Shaoshan Irrigation System—diverts some of the upper waters of the Lian Stream, thus irrigating the dry hill land, and also controls flooding in the river’s lower reaches; the irrigated area has been converted from single-crop to double-crop rice land.

Zhang Xueliang was a Chinese warlord who, together with Yang Hucheng, in the Xi’an Incident (1936), compelled the Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi) to form a wartime alliance with the Chinese communists against Japan. Zhang Xueliang was the oldest son of the warlord Zhang Zuolin,

Fujian: Drainage: …stream of the Min, the Futun, is also called the Shaowu, for the chief city of the region; it flows down the eastern slopes of the Wuyi Mountains. The third source, the Sha, flows from the south and southwest, arising on the eastern slopes of another section of the Wuyi…

Shaowu, city in northwestern Fujian sheng (province), China. It is situated on the upper course of the Futun River, some 30 miles (50 km) from the border of Jiangxi province. Shaowu is an important communication centre, located on the railway line from Jiangxi to the coastal ports of Xiamen (Amoy)

Shaoxing, city, northeastern Zhejiang sheng (province), eastern China. It is situated in the centre of the eastern half of the coastal plain south of Hangzhou Bay. Shaoxing lies along the Hang-Yong Canal (the local section is also called the Zhedong Canal)—which joins Ningbo to the east with

Shaoyang, city, central Hunan sheng (province), southeastern China. It lies in the middle basin of the Zi River. A county named Zhaoling was established at the site of Shaoyang in the 2nd century bce. In the mid-3rd century ce it became the seat of a commandery called Zhaoling. In 280 the name was

Shaoguan, city, northern Guangdong sheng (province), southern China. It lies along the Bei River at the point where it is formed by the junction of the Wu River, flowing southeast from the borders of Hunan, and the Zhen River, flowing southwest from the borders of Jiangxi province. Shaoguan thus

Shapash, (“Light of the Gods”), in ancient Mesopotamian religion, sun goddess. In the cycle of myths recovered from Ugarit, Shapash helps Anath in her retrieval of the dead Baal and intervenes in the final conflict between Baal and

steel: Shapes: These are long products with irregular cross sections, such as beams, channels, angles, and rails. Rolling starts with blooms that may be 150 millimetres by 200 millimetres by 5 metres long. The blooms are received, either cold or hot, directly from the blooming mill…

painting: Shape and mass: Shape and mass, as elements of design, include all areas of different colour, tone, and texture, as well as individual and grouped images.

dice: Cheating with dice: …odds and is called a shape, a brick, or a flat. For example, a cube that has been shaved down on one or more sides so that it is slightly brick-shaped will tend to settle down most often on its larger surfaces, whereas a cube with bevels, on which one…

shape-note singing: Shape notes are a variant system of Western musical notation whereby the note heads are printed in distinct shapes to indicate their scale degree and solmization syllable (fa, sol, la, etc.). Since 1801 shape notes have been associated with American sacred music, specifically with singing…

Ornette Coleman: …the quartet’s classic recordings included The Shape of Jazz to Come (1959) and Change of the Century (1960). Coleman moved to New York City, where his radical conception of structure and the urgent emotionality of his improvisations aroused widespread controversy. His recordings Free Jazz (1960), which used two simultaneously improvising…

H.G. Wells: Middle and late works: …version of a film script, The Shape of Things to Come. (Produced by Alexander Korda, the film Things to Come [1936] remains, on account of its special effects, one of the outstanding British films of the 20th century.) Wells’s version reverts to the utopianism of some earlier books, but as…

Guillermo del Toro: However, the bewitching fantasy romance The Shape of Water (2017), for which del Toro wrote the story and cowrote the screenplay, was nominated for 13 Academy Awards and won 4, including for best picture. In addition, del Toro garnered the Oscar, the Golden Globe Award, and the BAFTA Award for…

Tony Hillerman: …in the series, ending with The Shape Shifter (2006), and a number of nonfiction works, including New Mexico, Rio Grande, and Other Essays (1992). Among his numerous awards were two from the Mystery Writers of America: the Edgar Allan Poe Award (1974, for Dance Hall of the Dead [1973]) and…

universal: Trope nominalism: …tropes are “abstract particulars”: the shape trope, for example, is not coloured (it has no colour trope as a part), so one notices it by looking at the disk and “abstracting away” the colour. But the shape trope is still a particular in the sense that it is not freely…

coordination compound: History of coordination compounds: Werner also established the configuration (the spatial arrangement of ligands around the metal ion) of complexes by comparing the number and type of isomers (see below Isomerism) that he actually prepared for various series of compounds with the number and type theoretically predicted for various configurations. In this way…

shape-note hymnal, American hymnal incorporating many folk hymns and utilizing a special musical notation. The seven-note scale was sung not to the syllables do–re–mi–fa–sol–la–ti but to a four-syllable system carried with them by early English colonists: fa–sol–la–fa–sol–la–mi. Differently shaped

shape-note singing, a musical practice and tradition of social singing from music books printed in shape notes. Shape notes are a variant system of Western musical notation whereby the note heads are printed in distinct shapes to indicate their scale degree and solmization syllable (fa, sol, la,

antitank weapon: …guns used the shaped or hollow charge shell, which was designed to explode on impact and channel the explosive energy forward, enhancing penetrating force. Recoilless rifles were also specially developed for use against tanks.

pattern poetry, verse in which the typography or lines are arranged in an unusual configuration, usually to convey or extend the emotional content of the words. Of ancient (probably Eastern) origin, pattern poems are found in the Greek Anthology, which includes work composed between the 7th century

pattern poetry, verse in which the typography or lines are arranged in an unusual configuration, usually to convey or extend the emotional content of the words. Of ancient (probably Eastern) origin, pattern poems are found in the Greek Anthology, which includes work composed between the 7th century

India: Rural settlement: …settlement form described as a shapeless agglomerate. Such settlements, though unplanned, are divided by caste into distinct wards and grow outward from a recognizable core area. The dominant and higher castes tend to live in the core area, while the lower artisan and service castes, as well as Muslim groups,…

shaper, metal-cutting machine in which the workpiece is usually held in a vise or similar device that is clamped to a table and can be manually operated or power driven at right angles to the path of a chisellike cutting tool with only one cutting edge held on the end of a reciprocating ram. A

Ralph Shapey was an American composer and conductor noted for his lyrical, often contrapuntal and serial compositions for orchestral and chamber group. He was called a “radical traditionalist” for his unusual juxtaposition of modern musical language with a somewhat spiritual and dramatic approach.

rubber: Shaping: Shaping of the mixture into the desired form takes place in several ways. Extruders are used to produce long continuous products such as tubing, tire treads, and wire coverings. They are also used to produce various profiles that can later be cut to length.…

shaper, metal-cutting machine in which the workpiece is usually held in a vise or similar device that is clamped to a table and can be manually operated or power driven at right angles to the path of a chisellike cutting tool with only one cutting edge held on the end of a reciprocating ram. A

Chongqing: Suburban and outlying districts: including Jiangbei, Nan’an, Shapingba, Jiulongpo, and Dadukou. These districts have developed into major shopping and commercial centres. Shapingba also has emerged as a regional cultural centre, home to several of the municipality’s major institutions of higher learning. Jiangbei district is a centre of automobile and machinery production, as…

Karl Shapiro was an American poet and critic whose verse ranges from passionately physical love lyrics to sharp social satire. Educated at the University of Virginia and Johns Hopkins University, Shapiro first came to critical attention in 1942 with Person, Place and Thing, a celebration of his

Karl Shapiro was an American poet and critic whose verse ranges from passionately physical love lyrics to sharp social satire. Educated at the University of Virginia and Johns Hopkins University, Shapiro first came to critical attention in 1942 with Person, Place and Thing, a celebration of his

Yiddish literature: The classic writers: L. Shapiro was an important prose stylist, born in the Kiev region, who came in contact with Peretz’s circle in Warsaw. He met Peretz in 1896, moved to Warsaw in 1903, and began publishing short fiction in 1904. Following the pogroms of 1905, Shapiro immigrated…

Yiddish literature: The classic writers: L. Shapiro was an important prose stylist, born in the Kiev region, who came in contact with Peretz’s circle in Warsaw. He met Peretz in 1896, moved to Warsaw in 1903, and began publishing short fiction in 1904. Following the pogroms of 1905, Shapiro immigrated…

O.J. Simpson trial: …Robert Blasier, Shawn Chapman Holley, Robert Shapiro, Alan Dershowitz, and Robert Kardashian, the latter of whom was also Simpson’s longtime friend; Johnnie Cochran later became the defense team’s lead attorney. The Simpson defense was based largely on the grounds that evidence had been mishandled and that many members of the…

public opinion: Public opinion and government: Jacobs and Robert Y. Shapiro, who argued in Politicians Don’t Pander: Political Manipulation and the Loss of Democratic Responsiveness (2000) that politicians do not actually do this. They found instead that by the early 1970s the accusation of pandering was being used deliberately by prominent journalists, politicians,…

philosophy of mathematics: Nontraditional versions: …Platonism developed by Resnik and Shapiro is known as structuralism. The essential ideas here are that the real objects of study in mathematics are structures, or patterns—things such as infinite series, geometric spaces, and set-theoretic hierarchies—and that individual mathematical objects (such as the number 4) are not really objects at…

Robert Modell Shaplen was an American journalist whose incisive reporting made him one of the most-respected Asia correspondents. Over a 50-year career in which he reported for the New York Herald-Tribune (1937–43), Newsweek (1945–47), Fortune (1948–50), Collier’s (1950–51), and The New Yorker

Lloyd Shapley: …to game theory was the Shapley value, which he devised in 1953. In a cooperative game (that is, one in which players communicate and, most important, make binding agreements) in which the payoff must be distributed among players who have made unequal contributions, the Shapley value determines the fairest distribution…

Harlow Shapley was an American astronomer who deduced that the Sun lies near the central plane of the Milky Way Galaxy and was not at the centre but some 30,000 light-years away. In 1911 Shapley, working with results given by Henry Norris Russell, began finding the dimensions of stars in a number

Lloyd Shapley was an American mathematician who was awarded the 2012 Nobel Prize for Economics. He was recognized for his work in game theory on the theory of stable allocations. He shared the prize with American economist Alvin E. Roth. Shapley’s father was American astronomer Harlow Shapley.

Lloyd Shapley was an American mathematician who was awarded the 2012 Nobel Prize for Economics. He was recognized for his work in game theory on the theory of stable allocations. He shared the prize with American economist Alvin E. Roth. Shapley’s father was American astronomer Harlow Shapley.

Lloyd Shapley: The Shapley-Scarf model has been implemented in quickly and efficiently matching patients in need of an organ transplant with biologically compatible donors.

Cyrus Mistry: …Pallonji Mistry, head of the Shapoorji Pallonji Group, a diversified conglomerate that had begun with a construction company started by Pallonji Mistry’s grandfather in the 19th century. The Mistrys were members of Mumbai’s Parsi community, followers of the Zoroastrian religion who had grown prosperous as merchants and industrialists since the…

United States presidential election of 1972: The Democratic campaign: Milton Shapp. Muskie ran an exhausting campaign that stretched his energies and resources thin. Through January and February 1972, he shuttled between New Hampshire, Florida, Wisconsin and all the other necessary stops. On February 26, in New Hampshire, the pressure began to tell. Mounting the…

Shāpūr I, Persian king of the Sāsānian dynasty who consolidated and expanded the empire founded by his father, Ardashīr I. Shāpūr continued his father’s wars with Rome, conquering Nisibis (modern Nusaybin, Tur.) and Carrhae (Harran, Tur.) and advancing deep into Syria. Defeated at Resaina (now in

Iranian art and architecture: Sāsānian period: The Sāsānian palace at Ctesiphon was built (probably in the 4th century ce) of baked brick. The facades on either side of its famous vaulted iwan hall (82 feet [25 metres] wide and 121 feet [37 metres] high) have blind arcading with freely simplified classical detail.…

Shāpūr II was the 10th king of the Sāsānian Empire of Persia, who withstood Roman strength by astute military strategy and diplomacy and brought the empire to the zenith of its power. The name Shāpūr, meaning “son of a king,” was common in the Sāsānian period and was often given to sons other than

ancient Iran: Intermittent conflicts from Yazdegerd I to Khosrow I: …of disturbed reigns (Ardashīr II, Shāpūr III, Bahrām IV), Yazdegerd I came to the throne in 399. His reign is viewed differently by Christian and Zoroastrian sources. The former praise his clemency; the latter refer to him as “Yazdegerd the Sinful.” His initial inclination toward tolerance of Christianity and Judaism…

Shāpūr II was the 10th king of the Sāsānian Empire of Persia, who withstood Roman strength by astute military strategy and diplomacy and brought the empire to the zenith of its power. The name Shāpūr, meaning “son of a king,” was common in the Sāsānian period and was often given to sons other than

ancient Iran: Manichaeism: …with his first book, the Shāpuragān (Shabuhragan), a summary of his teachings (“dedicated to Shāpūr”) written in the Middle Persian language, which provides further evidence of a degree of royal favour. During Shāpūr’s reign the religion of Mani was thus propagated in and beyond Iran. The heir to the throne,…

ancient Iran: Manichaeism: …with his first book, the Shāpuragān (Shabuhragan), a summary of his teachings (“dedicated to Shāpūr”) written in the Middle Persian language, which provides further evidence of a degree of royal favour. During Shāpūr’s reign the religion of Mani was thus propagated in and beyond Iran. The heir to the throne,…