shopping centre, 20th-century adaptation of the historical marketplace, with accommodation made for automobiles. A shopping centre is a collection of independent retail stores, services, and a parking area conceived, constructed, and maintained by a management firm as a unit. Shopping centres may

marketing: Shopping goods: A second type of product is the shopping good, which usually requires a more involved selection process than convenience goods. A consumer usually compares a variety of attributes, including suitability, quality, price, and style. Homogeneous shopping goods are those that are similar in…

shopping centre, 20th-century adaptation of the historical marketplace, with accommodation made for automobiles. A shopping centre is a collection of independent retail stores, services, and a parking area conceived, constructed, and maintained by a management firm as a unit. Shopping centres may

Ob River: People of the Ob River: …the south, the Altay and Shor peoples of the mountains, the Tatars of the Irtysh basin, the Khanty (Ostyak) and the Mansi (Vogul)—whose autonomous district (Khanty-Mansi) occupies part of the taiga—and the Nenets, Nganasan, Enets, and Selkup peoples of the north. The

Tokutomi Sohō: …such influential early books as Shōrai no Nihon (1886; “The Future Japan”), he advocated that Western-style liberal and democratic reforms be undertaken in his country. In the following decades, however, he became a militant nationalist in favour of an imperialistic Japan, and during the 1920s and ’30s he was one…

military communication: World War II and after: …were short-range navigational systems, called shoran. Combinations of radar and communications for the landing of aircraft in zero visibility were perfected. One such system was the GCA, or ground-controlled approach system. Combinations of radio direction-finding, radar, and communications systems were developed and used for ground control of intercept aircraft—the system…

coast, broad area of land that borders the sea. A brief treatment of coasts follows. For full treatment, see coastal landforms. The coastlines of the world’s continents measure about 312,000 km (193,000 miles). They have undergone shifts in position over geologic time because of substantial changes

shore bug, any of the more than 200 species of small dark coloured insects with white or yellow markings that constitute the family Saldidae (order Heteroptera). Shore bugs prey upon other insects near fresh water or saltwater. When disturbed, shore bugs fly short distances and then hide in

shore fly, (family Ephydridae), any member of a family of insects in the fly order, Diptera, that are small, dark coloured, and commonly found in great numbers around ponds, streams, and the seashore. Most larvae are aquatic, and some species can tolerate highly saline or alkaline waters—such as

lark: …horned, or shore, lark (Eremophila alpestris) is native to the New World. The bill is quite variable: it may be small and narrowly conical or long and downward-curving; and the hind claw is long and sometimes straight. Plumage is plain or streaked (sexes usually alike) in a colour closely…

yellow scales, (Xanthoria parietina), lichen species characterized by lobed margins and a wrinkled centre. It is usually found where the air is filled with mineral salts, especially near the sea and on rocks and walls. It was once considered a valuable medication for jaundice because of its yellow

tree: Tree height growth: Some species, such as lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), are polycyclic; they have several flushes from a single bud during the growing season.

hardness tester: The Shore scleroscope measures hardness in terms of the elasticity of the material. A diamond-tipped hammer in a graduated glass tube is allowed to fall from a known height on the specimen to be tested, and the hardness number depends on the height to which the…

Shore Temple, complex of elegant shrines (c. 700 ce), one among a number of Hindu monuments at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram), on the Coromandel Coast of Tamil Nadu state, India. It is considered the finest early example of medieval southern Indian temple architecture. Unlike most of its neighbours

Dinah Shore was an American singer and television personality who projected a sunny disposition and exuded an effervescent Southern charm that, combined with her sultry contralto renditions of such favorites as "Blues in the Night," "I’ll Walk Alone," and "Buttons and Bows," endeared her to record

Boston Bruins: …future Hall of Fame members Eddie Shore, Aubrey (“Dit”) Clapper, and Cecil (“Tiny”) Thompson, among others. The Bruins took home two more Stanley Cups, after the 1938–39 and 1940–41 seasons, behind goal-keeping great Frank Brimsek. They returned to the Stanley Cup finals five more times between 1943 and 1958 but…

Dinah Shore was an American singer and television personality who projected a sunny disposition and exuded an effervescent Southern charm that, combined with her sultry contralto renditions of such favorites as "Blues in the Night," "I’ll Walk Alone," and "Buttons and Bows," endeared her to record

The Lord of the Rings: …film scores by Canadian composer Howard Shore for the films The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Two Towers (2002), and The Return of the King (2003), based on the three-part fantasy novel The Lord of the Rings (1954–56) by J.R.R. Tolkien. Shore won three Oscars and four Grammys for…

Jane Shore was a mistress of the English king Edward IV (reigned 1461–70 and 1471–83). Beautiful, charming, and witty, she is thought to have exercised a beneficial influence over Edward. The daughter of a prosperous London merchant, Jane at an early age married William Shore, a goldsmith. Edward,

India: Relations with the Marathas and Mysore: Lord Cornwallis and his successor Sir John Shore (governor-general 1793–98) were eager to comply, but Cornwallis nevertheless found himself involved in the third Mysore war (1790–92) with Tippu Sultan, who possessed his father’s ability without his judgment. The cause was a combination of Tippu Sultan’s intransigence with conflicting obligations undertaken…

Shorea, genus of plants in the family Dipterocarpaceae, comprising about 360 species of tall South Asian evergreen trees that are extremely valuable for their timber. Sal (Shorea robusta) is perhaps the second most important timber tree (after teak) in the Indian subcontinent. The timbers are of

Shorea: …with a few other species, dumala (S. oblongifolia), a very large tree, yields dammar resin, which has various uses, including as varnish and incense.

Himalayas: Plant life: …where the valuable timber tree sal (Shorea robusta) is the dominant species. Wet sal forests thrive on high plateaus at elevations of about 3,000 feet (900 metres), while dry sal forests prevail higher up, at 4,500 feet (1,400 metres). Farther west, steppe forest (i.e., expanse of grassland dotted with trees),…

shorebird, any member of the suborder Charadrii (order Charadriiformes) that is commonly found on sea beaches or inland mudflats; in Britain they are called waders, or wading birds. Shorebirds include the avocet, courser, lapwing, oystercatcher, phalarope, plover, pratincole, sandpiper, and snipe

furniture industry: Woodworking machinery: Thus in Shoreditch, London, whole streets of houses were occupied by cabinetmakers, often several in one house, who made pieces that varied from the finest individual items to the cheapest, turned out in pairs or perhaps six at a time. These men had their machining done in…

Shoreham-by-Sea, port in Adur district, administrative county of West Sussex, historic county of Sussex, southeastern England. It serves as the administrative centre for Worthing district, just to the west. Shoreham-by-Sea lies along the English Channel at the mouth of the River Adur, between the

coastal landforms: Beaches: A close look at the shoreline along most beaches will show that it is not straight or gently curved but rather that it displays a regularly undulating surface much like a low-amplitude sine curve. This is seen both on the plan view of the shoreline and the topography of the…

Paul Shorey was a U.S. scholar and Humanist noted for his writings on classical Greek art and thought. Shorey graduated from Harvard in 1878, was admitted to the bar in 1880, and later studied in Germany and Greece. He taught at Bryn Mawr College and the universities of Chicago and Berlin. A man of

shoring, form of prop or support, usually temporary, that is used during the repair or original construction of buildings and in excavations. Temporary support may be required, for example, to relieve the load on a masonry wall while it is repaired or reinforced. The support may be supplied by

Jhang Sadar: The Shorkot ruins, south of Jhang Sadar, may represent a city captured by Alexander the Great in 325 bce. Pop. (1998) 293,366; (2017) 414,309.

Bartolomé de Las Casas: The Apologética and the Destrucción: …of still another work, the Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias (A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies), which he wrote in 1542 and in which the historical events described are in themselves of less importance than their theological interpretation: “The reason why the Christians have…

Celtic literature: Manx: … ghiare yeh Ellan Vannin (“The Short Account of the Isle of Man”), written in Manx by Joseph Bridson and printed as the 20th volume of the Publications of the Manx Language Society. As late as 1901 there appeared from the press Skeealyn Æsop, a selection of Aesop’s fables.

William Thornton: In Short Account of the Origin of Steamboats (1814) Thornton defended their experiments done between about 1778 and 1790 against Robert Fulton’s later claims of first inventing a steam-powered boat. Thornton also patented eight inventions between 1802 and 1827 for improving such devices as firearms and…

aerospace industry: The first decade: …and set up the company Short Brothers Limited on the Isle of Sheppey, establishing the world’s first assembly line for aircraft. In the same year the American aviation pioneer Glenn Curtiss joined the list of airplane producers and made the first commercial sale of an aircraft in the United States.…

Robert Altman: 1980s and ’90s of Robert Altman: …again for his direction of Short Cuts (1993), an ambitious, three-hour-plus adaptation of nine short stories by Raymond Carver that was reminiscent of Nashville in its character-driven kaleidoscopic structure. Less accomplished than these two efforts was Prêt-à-Porter (1994), an impressionistic look at the world of Paris couture that reteamed iconic…

canter: In the short form, or collected canter, a gait seen in dressage or three-gaited classes, a much higher head and neck is featured, as is a more visible point of suspension.

The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber, short story by Ernest Hemingway, first published in Cosmopolitan in 1936, collected in The Fifth Column and the First Forty-nine Stories (1938). Set on an African safari, the story contains some of the author’s recurrent themes—“grace under pressure” and

futures: The theory and practice of hedging: …futures market: they are called short and long hedgers. Short hedgers are merchants and processors who acquire inventories of the commodity in the spot market and who simultaneously sell an equivalent amount or less in the futures market. The hedgers in this case are said to be long on their…

Marxism: Stalin: …Partii (Bolshevikov): Kratky kurs (1938; A Short History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), and on a materialism that can be considered roughly identical to that of Feuerbach. His work Voprosy leninizma (1926; Problems of Leninism), which appeared in 11 editions during his lifetime, sets forth an ideology…

RNA interference: RNAi in research and medicine: These pieces are called short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and are about 20 to 25 nucleotides in length. Similar to miRNA, siRNA binds to RISC and cleaves targeted sequences of mRNA.

small arm: Standardized patterns and parts: …muskets, and in 1768 the Short Land musket, with a 42-inch barrel, became standard. Known as the second model Brown Bess, the Short Land became one of the basic weapons used in the American Revolution (1775–83). It was succeeded in 1797 by the “India Pattern,” with a 39-inch barrel. During…

short metre, a quatrain of which the first, second, and fourth lines are in iambic trimeter and the third is in iambic tetrameter. Short metre may also refer to a poulter’s measure (alternating lines of 12 and 14 syllables) written as a

texting: …cell phones, usually using the Short Messaging Service (SMS).

short metre, a quatrain of which the first, second, and fourth lines are in iambic trimeter and the third is in iambic tetrameter. Short metre may also refer to a poulter’s measure (alternating lines of 12 and 14 syllables) written as a

keyboard instrument: The short octave: Even after the present arrangement of five raised keys and seven natural keys per octave had become standard in the 15th century, two exceptions existed. The first of these—the “short octave”—concerned only the lowest octave at the bass end of the keyboard. In…

Short Parliament, (April 13–May 5, 1640), parliament summoned by Charles I of England, the first to be summoned for 11 years, since 1629, and the prelude to the Long Parliament. Determined to impose the Anglican liturgy on the Scots, Charles sent an army northward in the first of the so-called

Randy Newman: …of Newman’s biggest hits, “Short People” from Little Criminals (1977) and “I Love L.A.” from Trouble in Paradise (1983), was lost on many listeners. Land of Dreams (1988) was Newman’s most personal album; in 1995 he released Faust, a concept album based on Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s Faust. The…

figure skating: The short program: The short program is made up of required elements. Singles skaters at the senior level are required to complete eight designated elements set to music lasting no longer than 2 minutes and 40 seconds. For example, in the 2001–02 season the elements chosen…

Short Ride in a Fast Machine, orchestral fanfare by American composer John Adams that evokes the excitement-cum-terror of a late-night thrill ride in a sports car. The piece was composed in 1986 as an opener for a summer festival given by the Pittsburgh Symphony. Since that time, it has become one

Stephenie Meyer: In 2010 Meyer published The Short Second Life of Bree Tanner, a novella about a “newborn” vampire that appeared in Eclipse. Meyer made a foray into the spy genre with The Chemist (2016), which centres on a female former agent who specializes in interrogations. In 2020 she returned to…

conifer: Stem: …transient special determinate twigs called short shoots that carry most of the photosynthetic leaves. In the bald cypress (Taxodium) and dawn redwood (Metasequoia), the short shoots look like double-sided combs and are shed each fall, to be followed by new ones in the same spots on the branches when growth…

futures: The theory and practice of hedging: …two categories, namely, long and short speculators. The long speculators are those who expect the price to rise above the current level and assume risks by purchasing futures contracts. Short speculators are those who expect the price to fall. They sell futures contracts. In a futures market the total short…

splice: In the short splice the strands of each rope are unlayed (untwisted), interwoven, and tucked into the lay (twist) of the other rope. For neatness the strands are usually trimmed down before the final tuck is made.

Willie Simms: …most-successful rider to adopt the short stirrup since the antebellum slave and rider Abe Hawkins. The short stirrup, which is now ubiquitous, lifts the rider over the horse’s withers (the ridge between the horse’s shoulder bones) and thereby allows the animal better balance. In 1895 Simms became the first American…

short story, brief fictional prose narrative that is shorter than a novel and that usually deals with only a few characters. The short story is usually concerned with a single effect conveyed in only one or a few significant episodes or scenes. The form encourages economy of setting, concise

Mao Dun: …control of the 11-year-old journal Xiaoshuo yuebao (“Short-Story Monthly”). With the support of older writers such as Zhou Zuoren, Shen and his colleagues established the Literary Research Association in the same year. Shen edited Xiaoshuo yuebao until 1923 and revamped it into the most important journal of “new literature” at…

Karl Abraham: …Psychoanalyse seelischer Störungen (1924; A Short Study of the Development of the Libido, Viewed in the Light of Mental Disorders), appeared in English in his Selected Papers (1953). “Character-Formation on the Genital Level of Libido-Development,” also contained in the Selected Papers, is a translation of his last major paper (1925).

Jimmy Breslin: … (1996), and the nonfiction books The Short Sweet Dream of Eduardo Gutiérrez (2002), an account of a Mexican construction worker killed when the Brooklyn, New York, building he was working on collapsed, and The Good Rat (2008), a book about the Mafia.

STOL airplane, any of several fixed-wing aircraft capable of taking off and landing on runways considerably shorter than those needed by conventional aircraft. Most aircraft of this type require a runway no more than 150 metres (500 feet) long, which is about 10 times shorter than the average

ton: …in the United States (the short ton) and 2,240 pounds (1,016.05 kg) in Britain (the long ton). The metric ton used in most other countries is 1,000 kg, equivalent to 2,204.6 pounds avoirdupois. The term derives from tun, denoting a large barrel used in the wine trade. Ton came to…

Benedict de Spinoza: Rijnsburg and The Hague: …mensch en deszelfs welstand (Short Treatise on God, Man and His Well-Being), a brief survey of his overall philosophy. During this period he was also working on the Ethics, as his correspondence shows.

Edmond Hoyle: …whist that year, he prepared A Short Treatise on the Game of Whist (1742), which went through 13 editions in his lifetime. His revised laws of 1760 remained authoritative until 1864, when the Arlington and Portland whist clubs in London adopted a new code. French and German translations of the…

torpedo plane: 12, 1915, when a British Short Type 184 seaplane sank a Turkish vessel in the Dardanelles. Other navies’ torpedo planes also had some success during World War I.

Jeremy Collier: In his notorious A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage (1698), Collier attacks William Wycherley, John Dryden, William Congreve, John Vanbrugh, and Thomas D’Urfey, censuring them for indecency, for profane language, for abusing the clergy, and for undermining public morality by sympathetic presentation…

Thomas Rymer: In 1693 he published A Short View of Tragedy, in which his Neoclassicism was at its narrowest (and in which he criticized Shakespeare’s Othello as “a . . . Bloody farce, without salt or savour”). In A Short View, Rymer rejected all modern drama and advocated a return to…

Vulgar Latin: …the system of long and short vowels. On the whole, long vowels became tense and short vowels lax, resulting in a wholesale change in the rhythm of the language. In the texts there is evidence of the confusion of ĭ and ē and of ŭ and ō that has occurred…

climate: Characteristics: …miles) or less are called short waves, while those with longer wavelengths are called long waves. In addition, short waves progress in the same direction as the mean airflow, which is from west to east in the midlatitudes; long waves retrogress (that is, move in the opposite direction of the…

Bobby Short was an American cabaret singer and piano player who in his personal and performance style came to represent a sophistication and elegance typical of an earlier era. At age 9 Short was already playing piano in roadhouses and saloons near his childhood home; at 12 he played his first

Clare Short is a British politician who, while a member of the Labour Party, served as secretary of state for international development (1997–2003). She is known for being fiercely independent. Short’s parents were both Irish-born Roman Catholics with strong Irish republican sympathies. After

James Short was a British optician and astronomer who produced the first truly parabolic—hence nearly distortionless—mirrors for reflecting telescopes. Short entered the University of Edinburgh as a candidate for the ministry, but he was inspired to study optics instead by the lectures of the

Martin Short is an Emmy- and Tony-winning Canadian actor, comedian, and writer known for his work on television comedy shows such as SCTV Network and Saturday Night Live, movies such as Three Amigos! (1986) and Father of the Bride (1991), and, more recently, the streaming crime comedy series Only

Martin Short is an Emmy- and Tony-winning Canadian actor, comedian, and writer known for his work on television comedy shows such as SCTV Network and Saturday Night Live, movies such as Three Amigos! (1986) and Father of the Bride (1991), and, more recently, the streaming crime comedy series Only

Maurice Ashley: Nigel Short world championship match (1993), Kasparov v. IBM Deep Blue matches (1996 and 1997), and Kasparov v. X3D Fritz (2003), among other chess events. He also held posts at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University. Ashley was the author of instructional CD-ROMs,…

Bobby Short was an American cabaret singer and piano player who in his personal and performance style came to represent a sophistication and elegance typical of an earlier era. At age 9 Short was already playing piano in roadhouses and saloons near his childhood home; at 12 he played his first

Ruby McKim was one of the 20th century’s most innovative American quilt designers. Educated at the New York School of Fine and Applied Arts (now Parsons School of Design) in New York City, she later taught art classes for the Kansas City school system. Her first published quilt pattern, for the

Earth Council Alliance: …century, Strong and American philanthropist Tommy Short created the Earth Council Alliance to facilitate the work of the national councils and of allied environmental organizations and activists. To accomplish its goals, ECA supports initiatives and sponsors grassroots events such as World Environment Day.

Pearl Harbor attack: Warnings and responses: Walter C. Short, who shared command at Pearl Harbor, were warned of the possibility of war, specifically on October 16 and again on November 24 and 27. The notice of November 27, to Kimmel, began, “This dispatch is to be considered a war warning,” went…

echidna: Short-beaked echidna: The short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) has a straight forward-pointing beak and a heavy coat of spines. It is fairly common in suitable habitats throughout Australia; it is also found in New Guinea, although little is known to science about its range and habits…

dowitcher: …northwesterly breeding range than the short-billed dowitcher (L. griseus), which is about the same size except for the bill. There is also an Asian species, called the Asiatic dowitcher (L. semipalmatus).

branch and twig borer: The lead-cable borer, or short-circuit beetle (Scobicia declivis), bores into the lead covering of older telephone cables. Moisture entering through the hole can cause short circuits. This beetle lives in oak, maple, or other trees and does not feed on the cable sheathing.

coin: Post-Conquest coinage: His short-cross penny, so called from its reverse design, first issued in 1180, remained unchanged—including the name Henricus—not only by Henry II but also by Richard and John and Henry III until 1247, when Henry III coined the long-cross penny with the arms of the cross…

canine: Paleontology and classification: Atelocynus (small-eared zorro) 1 species of South America. Genus Cerdocyon (crab-eating fox) 1 species of South America. Genus Chrysocyon (maned wolf) 1 species of South America.

short-eared owl, (Asio flammeus), stocky bird of prey of the family Strigidae (order Strigiformes), about 40 cm (about 1.3 feet) long with a prominent facial disk. Among the most widely distributed of owls, it is circumpolar from the Arctic to the North Temperate Zone, occurs in Hawaii and much of

pilot whale: The short-finned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus) and the long-finned pilot whale (G. melas) are similar in appearance except for the pronounced difference in flipper length between the two species. Both species are found in all the oceans of the world except the Arctic; however, long-finned pilot…

glider: An example is the short-headed glider (P. breviceps) found from New Guinea to Tasmania; it is blue-gray with a dark centre stripe and has a long bushy tail. These animals can glide 55 m (180 feet). The greater glider (Schoinobates volans) of eastern Australia may be 105 cm long;…

lizard: Annotated classification: Family Trogonophidae (short-headed worm lizards) Limbless worm lizards with spade-shaped heads. They occur in North Africa, the eastern Arabian Peninsula, and the Horn of Africa. 4 genera with 6 species are recognized. Advances in gene sequencing (especially the use of nuclear genes) and analytical techniques…

sculpin: …include such forms as: the bullrout, or shorthorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus scorpius), a large, mottled-brownish sculpin found in Europe, the Arctic, and North America; the longhorn sculpin (M. octodecemspinosus), a common North American species, variable in colour and with long cheek spines; and the sea raven, a North American fish distinctively…

short-horned grasshopper, (family Acrididae), any of more than 10,000 species of insects (order Orthoptera) that are characterized by short, heavy antennae, a four-valved ovipositor for laying eggs, and three-segmented tarsi (distal segments of the leg). They are herbivorous and include some of the

explosive: Delay systems: …early 1900s, and (2) the short-interval, or millisecond, delay, which was introduced about 1943. Except for a delay element placed between the ignition and primer charges, they are the same as instantaneous electric caps.

solar prominence: …are of two main types, active and quiescent. Active prominences erupt quickly and have lifetimes lasting from several minutes to a few hours. They are associated with sunspot groups and, like these, are correlated in numbers and activity with the solar cycle. Quiescent prominences tend to emerge smoothly and subside…

bandicoot: The three species of short-nosed bandicoots, Isoodon, are shorter-snouted, smaller-eared, and more heavily built than the long-nosed bandicoots and occasionally weigh up to 2.5 kg (5.5 pounds). Between them, they are found along Australia’s coastlands, but not in the arid zone, and extend into southern and eastern New Guinea…

gar: The shortnose gar (L. platostomus), which is native to much of the Mississippi River basin, is smaller, growing up to 0.6 metre (2 feet) in length.

rat kangaroo: …rat kangaroos, or bettongs (genus Bettongia), have pinkish noses and short ears. The Tasmanian, or eastern, bettong (B. gaimardi) has gray fur along its back and white fur on its chest and abdomen, along with a crest of black hair along its white-tipped tail. The species is restricted to eastern…

spearfish: The shortbill, or short-nosed, spearfish (T. angustirostris) is a Pacific member of the genus—scarce and rather small for a billfish. Blue above and silvery below, it usually does not exceed 1.8 m (6 feet) and 27 kg (60 pounds). The species T. belone is a Mediterranean…

computer: Interpreters: Shortcode, or short-order code, was the first such language actually implemented. Suggested by John Mauchly in 1949, it was implemented by William Schmitt for the BINAC computer in that year and for UNIVAC in 1950. Shortcode went through multiple steps: first it converted the alphabetic…

RR Lyrae star, any of a group of old giant stars of the class called pulsating variables (see variable star) that pulsate with periods of about 0.2–1 day. They belong to the broad Population II class of stars (see Populations I and II) and are found mainly in the thick disk and halo of the Milky

comet: Dynamics: …into two dynamical groups: the short-period comets with orbital periods shorter than 200 years and the long-period comets with orbital periods longer than 200 years. The short-period comets were split into two groups, the Jupiter-family comets with periods shorter than about 20 years and the Halley-type comets with periods longer…

rocket and missile system: Matador and other programs: …had given way to the short-range attack missile, or SRAM, essentially an internally carried, air-launched ballistic missile.

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty: …and shorter-range ballistic missiles (SRBMs) as those having ranges from 500 to 1,000 km.

military communication: World War II and after: …were short-range navigational systems, called shoran. Combinations of radar and communications for the landing of aircraft in zero visibility were perfected. One such system was the GCA, or ground-controlled approach system. Combinations of radio direction-finding, radar, and communications systems were developed and used for ground control of intercept aircraft—the system…