Edward L. Thorndike was an American psychologist whose work on animal behaviour and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism, which states that behavioral responses to specific stimuli are established through a process of trial and error that affects neural connections between the

Edward L. Thorndike was an American psychologist whose work on animal behaviour and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism, which states that behavioral responses to specific stimuli are established through a process of trial and error that affects neural connections between the

Thorndike–Barnhart dictionaries, notable series of school dictionaries that were widely used in the United States during the 20th century. Their content was based on the theories of Edward L. Thorndike, an educational psychologist, and Clarence Lewis Barnhart, lexicographer and editor, both

Kip Thorne is an American physicist who was awarded the 2017 Nobel Prize for Physics for his work on the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) and the first direct detection of gravity waves. He shared the prize with American physicists Rainer Weiss and Barry C. Barish. Thorne

Kip Thorne is an American physicist who was awarded the 2017 Nobel Prize for Physics for his work on the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) and the first direct detection of gravity waves. He shared the prize with American physicists Rainer Weiss and Barry C. Barish. Thorne

Harriet Mann Miller was an American children’s author whose writing tended to either heartrending fiction about desolate children or lively, factual nature pieces. Harriet Mann grew up in various towns as her itinerant father drifted from place to place, and her schooling was consequently

Gil Evans: …worked as an arranger with Claude Thornhill’s band, devising the unique instrumentation that was to become a trademark of his early years: a standard big-band lineup, plus French horns and tuba. Evans used similar instrumentation for his two arrangements on Miles Davis’s seminal album Birth of the Cool (recorded 1949–50),…

Sir James Thornhill was an English painter, the first to excel in historical painting, whose style was in the Italian Baroque tradition. Thornhill became the history painter and sergeant painter to George I and George II, master of the Painters’ Company in 1720, fellow of the Royal Society in 1723,

giraffe: giraffa), the Masai giraffe (G. tippelskirchi), and the reticulated giraffe (G. reticulata).

Helle Thorning-Schmidt is a Danish politician who became Denmark’s first female prime minister when she took office in 2011; she held the post until 2015. Thorning-Schmidt was the youngest of three children in a family split by divorce. She grew up with her businesswoman mother in Ishøj, a town

Crown of Thorns, wreath of thorns that was placed on the head of Jesus Christ at his crucifixion, whereby the Roman soldiers mocked his title “King of the Jews.” The relic purported to be the Crown of Thorns was transferred from Jerusalem to Constantinople by 1063. The French king Louis IX (St.

crown of thorns, (Euphorbia milii), thorny plant of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae), native to Madagascar. Crown of thorns is popular as a houseplant and is grown in warm climates as a garden shrub. Flowering is year-round but most plentiful in wintertime in the Northern Hemisphere. The common

climate classification: Empirical classifications: …made by the American geographer-climatologist C. Warren Thornthwaite in 1931 and 1948. He first used a vegetation-based approach that made use of the derived concepts of temperature efficiency and precipitation effectiveness as a means of specifying atmospheric effects on vegetation. His second classification retained these concepts in the form of…

Denver: Littleton, Northglenn, Thornton, Westminster, and Wheat Ridge; Golden, about 12 miles (19 km) west of Denver, and Boulder, about 25 miles (40 km) northwest, are also part of the metropolitan region. Greater Denver is at the centre of a string of urban areas that stretches along the…

Caroline Atoll, coral formation in the Central and Southern Line Islands, part of Kiribati, in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, about 450 miles (720 km) northwest of Tahiti. With a total area of 1.45 square miles (3.76 square km), it is made up of 20 islets that rise to 20 feet (6 metres) above mean

Silurian Period: Reef mounds and coral biostromes: The Thornton Reef Complex outside Chicago is an example of a well-zoned Wenlock complex more than 1 km (0.6 mile) in diameter. Others are well known from the Silurian of Manitoulin Island (Ontario, Can.), northern Greenland, Shropshire (Eng.), Gotland (Swed.), Estonia, the central and southern Urals…

Big Mama Thornton was an influential American singer and songwriter whose gritty vocals and instrumental style had tremendous influence on blues, R&B, and rock and roll. Overlooked by white audiences during her lifetime, Thornton’s work inspired imitation by Elvis Presley and Janis Joplin, who

Billy Bob Thornton is an American actor, writer, director, and musician known for his versatility and eccentric personality. He won an Academy Award for his screenplay of Sling Blade (1996). Thornton grew up in rural Arkansas. He played in various bands in high school and worked a number of menial

Billy Bob Thornton is an American actor, writer, director, and musician known for his versatility and eccentric personality. He won an Academy Award for his screenplay of Sling Blade (1996). Thornton grew up in rural Arkansas. He played in various bands in high school and worked a number of menial

Litton Industries, Inc.: …1953 by Charles Bates “Tex” Thornton (1913–81). Its more than 80 divisions provide products and services ranging from electronic and electrical components and equipment to aerospace and marine systems and equipment. It is headquartered in Beverly Hills, Calif. Among Litton’s popularly known brand-name products are Litton microwave ovens and Royal…

Henry Thornton was an English economist, banker, and philanthropist who made significant contributions to monetary theory. Thornton was the son of a noted merchant and philanthropist. He became a leading member of the Clapham Sect, an austere, evangelical branch of the Church of England, and was a

San Jose Sharks: …the standout play of centre Joe Thornton, had the best record in the NHL, earning the top seed in the Western Conference playoffs. However, in a twist on the franchise’s early playoff history, the Sharks were upset in the first round of the postseason by the Anaheim Ducks. The team…

Litton Industries, Inc.: …1953 by Charles Bates “Tex” Thornton (1913–81). Its more than 80 divisions provide products and services ranging from electronic and electrical components and equipment to aerospace and marine systems and equipment. It is headquartered in Beverly Hills, Calif. Among Litton’s popularly known brand-name products are Litton microwave ovens and Royal…

history of film: Australia, New Zealand, and Canada: Warwick Thornton directed Samson & Delilah (2009) and Sweet Country (2017), both dramas about Aboriginal Australians living in modern Australia. The actress Jennifer Kent’s directorial debut was the popular horror film The Babadook (2014). New Zealand films of note included Niki Caro’s Whale Rider (2002),…

William Thornton was a British-born American architect, inventor, and public official, best known as the creator of the original design for the Capitol at Washington, D.C. Thornton studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh (1781–84) and received his M.D. from the University of Aberdeen

Billy Bob Thornton is an American actor, writer, director, and musician known for his versatility and eccentric personality. He won an Academy Award for his screenplay of Sling Blade (1996). Thornton grew up in rural Arkansas. He played in various bands in high school and worked a number of menial

Big Mama Thornton was an influential American singer and songwriter whose gritty vocals and instrumental style had tremendous influence on blues, R&B, and rock and roll. Overlooked by white audiences during her lifetime, Thornton’s work inspired imitation by Elvis Presley and Janis Joplin, who

Africa: Cape shrub, bush, and thicket: …considerable enclaves of true evergreen bushland, which have reverted to shrubland (fynbos). Sclerophyllous foliage and proteas abound. Although grassy tracts occur on the mountains, they are characteristically unusual lower down. Beyond the Cape Ranges, fynbos grades into karoo.

ostariophysan: Annotated classification: Family Doradidae (thorny catfishes) Overlapping plates cover sides of body. Intestinal modifications for aerial respiration. Aquarium fishes. Generally small, to more than 1 metre (3 feet). South America. About 30 genera, about 72 species. Family Auchenipteridae (driftwood catfishes) Internal insemination. Fresh and brackish water, Panama and South…

coral: …1,000 species; black corals and thorny corals (Antipatharia), about 100 species; horny corals, or gorgonians (Gorgonacea), about 1,200 species; and blue corals (Coenothecalia), one living species.

moloch, small (20-centimetre- [8-inch-] long), squat, orange and brown Australian lizard of the Old World family Agamidae. Moloch is entirely covered with thornlike spines, the largest projecting from the snout and over each eye. The shape of its body and many of its habits are similar to those of

locust: The honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), also of the pea family, is a North American tree commonly used as an ornamental and often found in hedges.

Sir Hamo Thornycroft was an English sculptor who executed many public monuments. The son of the sculptor Thomas Thornycroft, Hamo studied under his father, at the schools of the Royal Academy, and in Italy, where he was particularly interested in Michelangelo. He established his own reputation as a

Sir John Isaac Thornycroft was an English naval architect and engineer who made fundamental improvements in the design and machinery of torpedo boats and built the first torpedo boat for the Royal Navy. Soon after he established his launch-building and engineering works at Chiswick, London, in

Sir Hamo Thornycroft was an English sculptor who executed many public monuments. The son of the sculptor Thomas Thornycroft, Hamo studied under his father, at the schools of the Royal Academy, and in Italy, where he was particularly interested in Michelangelo. He established his own reputation as a

Jón Thoroddsen was a writer commonly known as the father of the Icelandic novel. Thoroddsen studied law in Copenhagen, but an unhappy love affair—which is reflected in his novels—led him to seek solace in literature. He did so in lively fashion, composing drinking songs as well as poetry. The

Jón Thoroddsen was a writer commonly known as the father of the Icelandic novel. Thoroddsen studied law in Copenhagen, but an unhappy love affair—which is reflected in his novels—led him to seek solace in literature. He did so in lively fashion, composing drinking songs as well as poetry. The

Thorold, city, regional municipality of Niagara, southeastern Ontario, Canada. It lies along the Welland Canal, 4 miles (6.5 km) south of St. Catharines. Founded in 1788 and named after a British member of Parliament, Sir John Thorold, the town grew with the development of the canal, beginning in

radon: Radon-220 (thoron; 51.5-second half-life) was first observed in 1899 by American scientist Robert B. Owens and British scientist Ernest Rutherford, who noticed that some of the radioactivity of thorium compounds could be blown away by breezes in the laboratory. Radon-219 (actinon; 3.92-second half-life), which is

basso continuo, in music, a system of partially improvised accompaniment played on a bass line, usually on a keyboard instrument. The use of basso continuo was customary during the 17th and 18th centuries, when only the bass line was written out, or “thorough” (archaic spelling of “through”),

Thoroughbred, breed of horse developed in England for racing and jumping (see photograph). The origin of the Thoroughbred may be traced back to records indicating that a stock of Arab and Barb horses was introduced into England as early as the 3rd century. Natural conditions favoured development of

D. Wayne Lukas: ) is an American Thoroughbred and Quarter Horse trainer whose horses captured numerous races and amassed record earnings.

Anya Taylor-Joy: Becoming a scream queen: …nail-biters include the dark comedy Thoroughbreds (2017), the supernatural horror Marrowbone (2017), and the period thriller The Miniaturest (2017). At the end of the decade, Taylor-Joy moved away from such roles, portraying the daughter of Marie Curie (played by Rosamund Pike) in Radioactive and joining the cast of the hit…

Carol Channing: …in the Julie Andrews vehicle Thoroughly Modern Millie (1967) as a loopy society widow represented the apex of her own film career. In later years Channing starred in a number of touring cabaret shows and television specials and did voice-over work for numerous children’s films and cartoons.

Eupatorium, genus of about 60 species of plants belonging to the aster family (Asteraceae). Members of the genus are found chiefly in temperate areas of the Northern Hemisphere, though some species are also found in tropical South America, the West Indies, and Mexico. Several are grown as

John Thorp was an American inventor of the ring spinning machine (1828), which by the 1860s had largely replaced Samuel Crompton’s spinning mule in the world’s textile mills because of its greater productivity and simplicity. Little is known of Thorp’s early life. His first patent, received at the

Thomas B. Thorpe was an American humorist and one of the most effective portrayers of American frontier life and character before Mark Twain. Thorpe studied painting and at age 18 exhibited his “Ichabod Crane” at the American Academy of Fine Arts, New York City. In 1836 he moved to Louisiana, where

English literature: Fiction: Adam Thorpe’s striking first novel, Ulverton (1992), records the 300-year history of a fictional village in the styles of different epochs. Golding’s veteran fiction career came to a bravura conclusion with a trilogy whose story is told by an early 19th-century narrator (To the Ends…

logistics: Fundamentals: marine officer, Lieutenant Colonel Cyrus Thorpe, published his Pure Logistics in 1917, arguing that the logical function of logistics, as the third member of the strategy–tactics–logistics trinity, was to provide all the means, human and material, for the conduct of war, including not merely the traditional functions of supply…

Ian Thorpe is an Australian athlete, who was the most successful swimmer in that country’s history, accumulating five Olympic gold medals and 11 world championship titles between 1998 and 2004. Thorpe began swimming competitively at age eight, and, although he had been uncoordinated in other

Jim Thorpe was one of the most accomplished all-around athletes in history who in 1950 was selected by American sportswriters and broadcasters as the greatest American athlete and the greatest gridiron football player of the first half of the 20th century. Predominantly of American Indian (Sauk and

Liberal Party: History.: Under Jeremy Thorpe the party made substantial progress in the 1974 general election, returning almost 20 percent of the popular vote. The charismatic Thorpe himself fell victim to a scandal in which money was alleged to have been paid to secure the silence of his former…

Jim Thorpe was one of the most accomplished all-around athletes in history who in 1950 was selected by American sportswriters and broadcasters as the greatest American athlete and the greatest gridiron football player of the first half of the 20th century. Predominantly of American Indian (Sauk and

Anne Salmond is a New Zealand anthropologist and historian best known for her writings on New Zealand history, her study of Maori culture, and her efforts to improve intercultural understanding between Maori and Pakeha (people of European ancestry) New Zealanders. Salmond grew up in Gisborne, a

Jailhouse Rock: Production notes and credits:

Rose Alnora Hartwick Thorpe was an American poet and writer, remembered largely for a single narrative poem that gained national popularity. Rose Hartwick grew up in her birthplace of Mishawaka, Indiana, in Kansas, and in Litchfield, Michigan, where she graduated from public high school in 1868.

Sir Thomas Edward Thorpe was a chemist and director of British government laboratories (1894–1909) who, with a number of specialists, published A Dictionary of Applied Chemistry (1890–93). After obtaining his doctorate from the University of Heidelberg (1869), he held teaching posts in Glasgow and

history of publishing: England: Just such a man was Thomas Thorpe, the publisher of Shakespeare’s sonnets (1609); the mysterious “Mr. W.H.” in the dedication is thought by some to be the person who procured him his copy. The first Shakespeare play to be published (Titus Andronicus, 1594) was printed by a notorious pirate, John…

Thomas B. Thorpe was an American humorist and one of the most effective portrayers of American frontier life and character before Mark Twain. Thorpe studied painting and at age 18 exhibited his “Ichabod Crane” at the American Academy of Fine Arts, New York City. In 1836 he moved to Louisiana, where

Thomas B. Thorpe was an American humorist and one of the most effective portrayers of American frontier life and character before Mark Twain. Thorpe studied painting and at age 18 exhibited his “Ichabod Crane” at the American Academy of Fine Arts, New York City. In 1836 he moved to Louisiana, where

Thor, deity common to all the early Germanic peoples, a great warrior represented as a red-bearded, middle-aged man of enormous strength, an implacable foe to the harmful race of giants but benevolent toward mankind. His figure was generally secondary to that of the god Odin, who in some traditions

Ólafur Thors was a five-time Icelandic prime minister (1942, 1944–46, 1949–50, 1953–56, 1959–63). Educated at the University of Copenhagen, Thors ran a fishing trawler company with his brother after returning to Iceland in 1916. In 1925 he was elected to the Althingi (parliament) as a member of the

Tórshavn, port and capital of the Faroe Islands, Denmark. It is situated at the southern tip of Streymoy (Streym), the largest of the Faroe Islands. Tórshavn was founded in the 13th century, but it remained only a small village for several centuries thereafter. The ancient Lagting, or Faeroese

Steingrímur Thorsteinsson was an Icelandic patriotic poet and lyricist, best remembered as a translator of many important works into Icelandic. Thorsteinsson studied classical philology at the University of Copenhagen but, more important, read widely in the continental literature of his day. After

scandium: Thortveitite (a scandium silicate) is the only mineral containing large amounts of scandium, about 34 percent, but unfortunately this mineral is quite rare and is not an important source of scandium. The cosmic abundance of scandium is relatively high. Although it is only about the…

Vinland: …of years later Leif’s brother Thorvald led an expedition to Vinland and spent two years there before he died in a skirmish with Native inhabitants. The following year a third brother, Thorstein, tried to reach Vinland to take Thorvald’s body back to Greenland, but storms kept him away. Encouraged by…

Western architecture: Scandinavia and Greece: …the period 1830–1930 is the Thorvaldsen Museum in Copenhagen, erected in 1839–48 from designs by Michael Gottlieb Bindesbøll. It was built to house the collection of sculpture that the celebrated Danish Neoclassical sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen presented to his native country in 1837. The opportunity was taken of providing a major…

Bertel Thorvaldsen was a sculptor, prominent in the Neoclassical period, who was the first internationally acclaimed Danish artist. Prominent in Roman intellectual and artistic circles, he influenced many emerging artists from Europe and the United States. Thorvaldsen was the son of an Icelandic

Erik the Red was the founder of the first European settlement on Greenland (c. 985) and the father of Leif Erikson, one of the first Europeans to reach North America. According to the Icelanders’ sagas, Erik left his native Norway for western Iceland with his father, Thorvald, who had been exiled

Bertel Thorvaldsen was a sculptor, prominent in the Neoclassical period, who was the first internationally acclaimed Danish artist. Prominent in Roman intellectual and artistic circles, he influenced many emerging artists from Europe and the United States. Thorvaldsen was the son of an Icelandic

Television in the United States: Reality TV: …That’s Incredible! (ABC, 1980–84) and Those Amazing Animals (ABC, 1980–81). As home-video technology spread in the 1980s and ’90s, entire shows were designed around content produced by amateurs. ABC introduced America’s Funniest Home Videos (ABC, begun 1990), featuring tapes sent in by home viewers hoping to win prize money. When…

Aldous Huxley: Those Barren Leaves (1925) and Point Counter Point (1928) are works in a similar vein.

Faith Baldwin: …novels with such titles as Those Difficult Years (1925), The Office Wife (1930), Babs and Mary Lou (1931), District Nurse (1932), Manhattan Nights (1937), and He Married a Doctor (1944). Her last completed novel, Adam’s Eden, appeared in 1977.

Lewis Allen: Those Endearing Young Charms (1945) featured Laraine Day as a young woman who falls in love with a womanizing air force pilot (Robert Young) during World War II, while The Perfect Marriage (1946) was a lightweight marital comedy (based on a Broadway play) starring a…

Gert Fröbe: …as a Prussian general in Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines (1965), Fröbe’s large build and his wide identification with such parts as that of Goldfinger or a Nazi soldier increasingly limited him to roles as a “heavy.”

David Rabe: …Hurlyburly (1985; film 1998) and Those the River Keeps (1991), two related dramas about disillusionment in Hollywood; A Question of Mercy (1998); The Dog Problem (2002); The Black Monk (2004), based on a Chekhov short story; An Early History of Fire (first performed 2012); and Visiting Edna

Elena Ferrante: My Brilliant Friend series and later novels: …e di chi resta (2013; Those Who Leave and Those Who Stay), and Storia della bambina perduta (2014; The Story of the Lost Child)—readers follow Elena and Lila as they grapple with the consequences of those fateful decisions. The honest portrayal of their friendship as it ebbs and flows connected…

Nikki Giovanni: …returned to political concerns in Those Who Ride the Night Winds (1983), with dedications to Black American heroes and heroines. Giovanni’s later poetry collections included Love Poems (1997) and Bicycles (2009). Chasing Utopia (2013) and Make Me Rain (2020) feature poetry and prose. In Gemini (1971) she

Taylor Sheridan: Success as a screenwriter: Sheridan shifted gears with Those Who Wish Me Dead (2021), an action-thriller that he directed and cowrote. It stars Angelina Jolie as a firefighter protecting a young boy being chased by killers.

Lake Van, lake, largest body of water in Turkey and the second largest in the Middle East. The lake is located in the region of eastern Anatolia near the border of Iran. It covers an area of 1,434 square miles (3,713 square km) and is more than 74 miles (119 km) across at its widest point. Known to

Thoth, in Egyptian religion, a god of the moon, of reckoning, of learning, and of writing. He was held to be the inventor of writing, the creator of languages, the scribe, interpreter, and adviser of the gods, and the representative of the sun god, Re. His responsibility for writing was shared with

Copenhagen: Buildings there include the Thott Palace (now the French Embassy) and the Charlottenborg Palace (now the Royal Academy of Fine Arts), both of the 17th century, and the Royal Theatre, built in 1874.

Aristolochiaceae: The related Asian genus Thottea has about 25 species of shrubs and subshrubs, several of which are important in traditional and Ayurvedic medicine.

Jacques-Auguste de Thou was a French statesman, bibliophile, and historiographer whose detached, impartial approach to the events of his own period made him a pioneer in the scientific approach to history. Born into a family noted for its statesmen and scholars, de Thou studied law at Orléans,

Poitou-Charentes: Two of these towns—Niort and Thouars—rank among the oldest towns in France.

Taurt, goddess of ancient Egypt, the benevolent protectress of fertility and childbirth, associated also with the nursing of infants. She was depicted as having the head of a hippopotamus standing upright (sometimes with the breasts of a woman), the tail of a crocodile, and the claws of a lion. Her

thought, covert symbolic responses to stimuli that are either intrinsic (arising from within) or extrinsic (arising from the environment). Thought, or thinking, is considered to mediate between inner activity and external stimuli. In everyday language, the word thinking covers several distinct

gnosticism: Adversus haereses: …a divine faculty or attribute: Thought (a personification of the Father’s first self-thought), Foreknowledge, Incorruptibility, Eternal Life, and so forth. Among those spiritual entities is a perfect human named Adamas—a divine prototype of the earthly Adam of Genesis. Adamas is united with a consort, Perfect Knowledge

L. S. Vygotsky: His best-known work, Thought and Language (1934), was briefly suppressed as a threat to Stalinism.

Gedankenexperiment, term used by German-born physicist Albert Einstein to describe his unique approach of using conceptual rather than actual experiments in creating the theory of relativity. For example, Einstein described how at age 16 he watched himself in his mind’s eye as he rode on a light

Wallace Shawn: Shawn’s A Thought in Three Parts—featuring a prolonged simulated orgy in the second act—was met with parliamentary protests when it debuted in London in 1977 and was subsequently pulled from the theatre, which helped forge his reputation as a risk-taking playwright. In 1979 he made his…

thought, covert symbolic responses to stimuli that are either intrinsic (arising from within) or extrinsic (arising from the environment). Thought, or thinking, is considered to mediate between inner activity and external stimuli. In everyday language, the word thinking covers several distinct

laws of thought, traditionally, the three fundamental laws of logic: (1) the law of contradiction, (2) the law of excluded middle (or third), and (3) the principle of identity. The three laws can be stated symbolically as follows. (1) For all propositions p, it is impossible for both p and not p to

China: Reconstruction and consolidation, 1949–52: Finally, the thought-reform campaign humbled university professors and marked a turning point in the move from Western to Soviet influence in structuring China’s university curriculum.

Helen Hamilton Gardener: She followed it with A Thoughtless Yes (1890), Pray You, Sir, Whose Daughter? (1892), Pushed by Unseen Hands (1892), and An Unofficial Patriot (1894), a fictionalized biography of her father that was later successfully dramatized by James A. Herne as Griffith Davenport, Circuit Rider. Many of her articles on…

Georges Braque: Cubism: …the review Nord–Sud as “Thoughts and Reflections on Painting.” Even a brief sampling can suggest the quality, at once poetic and rational, of Braque’s mind and the sort of thinking that lay behind Cubism:

John Adams: Continental Congress: Moreover, he had written Thoughts on Government, which circulated throughout the colonies as the major guidebook for the drafting of new state constitutions (see primary source document: The Foundation of Government). In it, among other concerns, he contemplated the sort of representative assembly that would be most conducive to…

John Stuart Mill: The later years of John Stuart Mill: …dedication to her and the Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform in the same year. In his Considerations on Representative Government (1861) he systematized opinions already put forward in many casual articles and essays. It has been remarked how Mill combined enthusiasm for democratic government with pessimism as to what democracy was…

Michael Faraday: Later life of Michael Faraday: …the moment, Faraday offered “Thoughts on Ray Vibrations.” Specifically referring to point atoms and their infinite fields of force, he suggested that the lines of electric and magnetic force associated with these atoms might, in fact, serve as the medium by which light waves were propagated. Many years later,…

Edmund Burke: Political life: …issue is his pamphlet “Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents” (1770). He argued that George’s actions were against not the letter but the spirit of the constitution. The choice of ministers purely on personal grounds was favouritism; public approbation by the people through Parliament should determine their…