Robert Mills: …Treasury (built 1836–42) and the Old Patent Office (built 1836–40; later modified; now part of the Smithsonian Institution) in Washington, D.C.; the wings of Independence Hall in Philadelphia (1807); and the monuments to George Washington in Baltimore, Md. (designed 1814, erected 1815–29), and Washington, D.C. (designed 1836, completed 1884).

five hundred: …devised in 1904 by the United States Playing Card Company. Though later eclipsed by bridge, it still has a substantial American following and has also become the national card game of Australia and New Zealand. Five hundred was devised as a deliberate cross between euchre, with its distinctive “bowers,” and…

bankruptcy fraud: Bust-out schemes: …Federal Bureau of Investigation, the U.S. Postal Inspection Service, and the Internal Revenue Service, joined forces to begin actively prosecuting those who attempt to defraud creditors through bankruptcy fraud. Individuals who are found guilty of bankruptcy fraud may be sentenced to a fine of up to $250,000 and a prison…

United States Postal Service (USPS), independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government charged with processing and delivering mail and with protecting the mail from loss, theft, or abuse in accordance with U.S. postal laws. Besides providing mail processing and

United States presidential election of 1789, American presidential election held on February 4, 1789, in which George Washington was unanimously chosen as the first president of the United States by electors from 10 of the 13 extant states. Following the Constitutional Convention of May 1787, over

United States presidential election of 1792, American presidential election held in 1792, in which George Washington unanimously won a second term as president of the United States. Suffering from diminished physical abilities, Pres. George Washington had wished to retire at the end of his first

United States presidential election of 1796, American presidential election held in 1796, in which Federalist John Adams defeated Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson. The election of 1796 marked the emergence of the political party system in the United States. In the previous elections of 1789

United States presidential election of 1800, American presidential election held in 1800, in which Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson was elected as the country’s third president after defeating incumbent John Adams. The Framers had viewed political parties with suspicion, but by the 1790s

United States presidential election of 1804, American presidential election held in 1804, in which Democratic-Republican incumbent Thomas Jefferson soundly defeated Federalist candidate Charles C. Pinckney with 162 electoral votes to Pinckney’s 14. Prior to the 1804 presidential election, each

United States presidential election of 1808, American presidential election held in 1808, in which Democratic-Republican candidate James Madison defeated Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney . Deciding not to run for reelection, Pres. Thomas Jefferson unofficially anointed James Madison, his

United States presidential election of 1812, American presidential election held in 1812, in which James Madison defeated DeWitt Clinton. Madison had won a first term overwhelmingly in 1808, and his presidency was—and would continue to be—dominated by foreign affairs. In 1810 he had proclaimed

United States presidential election of 1816, American presidential election held in 1816, in which Democratic-Republican James Monroe defeated Federalist Rufus King with 183 electoral votes to King’s 34. As James Madison prepared to leave office following his second term as president, the election

United States presidential election of 1820, American presidential election, held in 1820, in which the Democratic-Republican James Monroe won reelection in a campaign in which he effectively ran unopposed. With few exceptions, such as the financial panic of 1819 and the ongoing dilemma over the

United States presidential election of 1824, American presidential election held in 1824, in which John Quincy Adams was elected by the House of Representatives after Andrew Jackson won the most popular and electoral votes but failed to receive a majority. Beginning in 1796, caucuses of the

United States presidential election of 1828, American presidential election held in 1828, in which Democrat Andrew Jackson defeated National Republican John Quincy Adams . The election of 1828 was arguably one of the most significant in United States history, ushering in the era of political

United States presidential election of 1832, American presidential election held in 1832, in which Democratic incumbent Andrew Jackson defeated National Republican candidate Henry Clay with 219 electoral votes to Clay’s 49. Though Jackson was still a popular leader as he approached the end of his

United States presidential election of 1836, American presidential election held in 1836, in which Democrat Martin Van Buren defeated several Whig Party candidates led by William Henry Harrison . As Pres. Andrew Jackson ’s second term drew to a close, he unofficially anointed his vice president,

United States presidential election of 1840, American presidential election held in 1840, in which Whig candidate William Henry Harrison defeated incumbent Democratic Pres. Martin Van Buren. By the election of 1840 the two-party system had become firmly entrenched in United States politics, with

United States presidential election of 1844, American presidential election held in 1844 in which Democratic candidate James K. Polk defeated Whig candidate Henry Clay with 170 electoral votes to Clay’s 105. Incumbent John Tyler, who had been vice president under William Henry Harrison and ascended

United States presidential election of 1848, American presidential election held on November 7, 1848, in which Whig candidate Zachary Taylor defeated Democratic nominee Lewis Cass . By early 1848 the acquisition of vast amounts of western land by Pres. James K. Polk over the previous two years—as a

United States presidential election of 1852, American presidential election held on November 2, 1852, in which Democrat Franklin Pierce defeated Whig Winfield Scott. The election of 1852 was contested in the aftermath of the Compromise of 1850, a series of measures passed by the U.S. Congress in an

United States presidential election of 1856, American presidential election held on November 4, 1856, in which Democrat James Buchanan defeated Republican John C. Frémont with 174 electoral votes to Frémont’s 114. Whig and former president Millard Fillmore, who ran on the Know-Nothing ticket,

United States presidential election of 1860, American presidential election held on November 6, 1860, in which Republican Abraham Lincoln defeated Southern Democrat John C. Breckinridge, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, and Constitutional Union candidate John Bell. The electoral split between Northern

United States presidential election of 1864, American presidential election held on November 8, 1864, in which Republican Pres. Abraham Lincoln defeated Democrat George B. McClellan . As the election occurred during the American Civil War , it was contested only by the states that had not seceded

United States presidential election of 1868, American presidential election held on November 3, 1868, in which Republican Ulysses S. Grant defeated Democrat Horatio Seymour. The election of 1868 was the first to be held after the American Civil War, and central to its outcome were the issues of

United States presidential election of 1872, American presidential election held November 5, 1872, in which Republican incumbent Ulysses S. Grant defeated Liberal Republican and Democratic candidate Horace Greeley with 286 electoral votes. Though 66 electoral votes had been pledged to Greeley, he

United States presidential election of 1876, disputed American presidential election held on November 7, 1876, in which Republican Rutherford B. Hayes defeated Democrat Samuel J. Tilden. Tilden led Hayes by more than 260,000 popular votes, and preliminary returns showed Tilden with 184 electoral

United States presidential election of 1880, American presidential election held on November 2, 1880, in which Republican James A. Garfield defeated Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock. Among presidents who won the popular vote, Garfield’s margin of victory remains the narrowest in history. Because

United States presidential election of 1884, American presidential election held on November 4, 1884, in which Democrat Grover Cleveland defeated Republican James G. Blaine. The election was marked by bitter mudslinging and scandalous accusations that overshadowed substantive issues such as civil

United States presidential election of 1888, American presidential election held on November 6, 1888, in which Republican Benjamin Harrison defeated Democratic incumbent Grover Cleveland, winning in the electoral college 233–168 despite losing the popular vote. It was the second time in American

United States presidential election of 1892, American presidential election held on November 8, 1892, in which Democrat Grover Cleveland defeated Republican incumbent Benjamin Harrison. In winning, Cleveland became the first former president to be restored to the office. Harrison’s first term as

United States presidential election of 1896, American presidential election held on November 3, 1896, in which Republican William McKinley defeated Democrat-Populist William Jennings Bryan. The presidential campaign of 1896 was one of the most exciting in American history. The central issue was the

United States presidential election of 1900, American presidential election held on November 6, 1900, in which Republican incumbent Pres. William McKinley defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan, winning 292 electoral votes to Bryan’s 155. In March 1898, two years into William McKinley’s first

United States presidential election of 1904, American presidential election, held on November 8, 1904, in which Republican incumbent Pres. Theodore Roosevelt soundly defeated Democrat Alton B. Parker. Roosevelt’s win marked the first time that a president not originally elected to the office

United States presidential election of 1908, American presidential election held on November 3, 1908, in which Republican William Howard Taft defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan. The biggest announcement in the run-up to the 1908 presidential election came in 1904 when, on the evening of his

United States presidential election of 1912, American presidential election held on November 5, 1912, in which Democrat Woodrow Wilson defeated Bull Moose (Progressive) candidate and former Republican president Theodore Roosevelt and Republican incumbent president William Howard Taft. Theodore

United States presidential election of 1916, American presidential election held on November 7, 1916, in which Democratic incumbent Woodrow Wilson defeated Republican Charles Evan Hughes in the electoral college 277–254. Though his election in 1912 was largely attributable to the formation of the

United States presidential election of 1920, American presidential election, held on November 2, 1920, in which Republican Warren G. Harding defeated Democrat James M. Cox in a landslide. Well before the campaign was officially under way, it became apparent that the 1920 election would be a

United States presidential election of 1924, American presidential election held on November 4, 1924, in which Republican Calvin Coolidge defeated Democrat John W. Davis. Running as the Progressive Party candidate, Robert M. La Follette captured some one-sixth of the popular vote. Upon the

United States presidential election of 1928, American presidential election held on November 6, 1928, in which Republican Herbert Hoover defeated Democrat Alfred E. Smith in the electoral college 444–87. Republican incumbent Calvin Coolidge unexpectedly announced in August 1927 that he would not

United States presidential election of 1932, American presidential election held on November 8, 1932, in which Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt defeated Republican Pres. Herbert Hoover. The 1932 election was the first held during the Great Depression, and it represented a dramatic shift in the

United States presidential election of 1936, American presidential election held on November 3, 1936, in which Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt won reelection, defeating Republican Alf Landon. (Read Eleanor Roosevelt’s Britannica essay on Franklin Roosevelt.) In 1932, amid the Great

United States presidential election of 1940, American presidential election held on November 5, 1940, in which Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt defeated Republican Wendell L. Willkie. By becoming the first president to win a third term, Roosevelt broke the two-term precedent established by the

United States presidential election of 1944, American presidential election held on November 7, 1944, in which Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt defeated Republican Thomas E. Dewey and thus secured his fourth term as president. (Read Eleanor Roosevelt’s Britannica essay on Franklin Roosevelt.) In the

United States presidential election of 1948, American presidential election held on November 2, 1948, in which Democratic Pres. Harry S. Truman defeated Republican Thomas E. Dewey. The roots of the 1948 election date to 1940, when Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt decided to run for an unprecedented

United States presidential election of 1952, American presidential election held on November 4, 1952, in which Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower easily defeated Democrat Adlai E. Stevenson. Without an incumbent candidate in the White House, there was intense interest in who would win the nomination

United States presidential election of 1956, American presidential election held on November 6, 1956, in which incumbent Republican Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower defeated Democrat Adlai E. Stevenson. It was the second consecutive election in which Stevenson lost to Eisenhower. In the winter of 1955–56

United States presidential election of 1960, American presidential election held on November 8, 1960, in which Democrat John F. Kennedy narrowly defeated Republican Vice Pres. Richard M. Nixon. Kennedy thus became the first Roman Catholic and the youngest person ever elected president. Kennedy was

United States presidential election of 1964, American presidential election held on November 3, 1964, in which Democratic Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson defeated Republican Barry Goldwater in one of the largest landslides in U.S. history. The 1964 election occurred just less than one year after the

United States presidential election of 1968, American presidential election held on November 5, 1968, in which Republican Richard M. Nixon defeated Democrat Hubert H. Humphrey. The run-up to the 1968 election was transformed in 1967 when Minnesota’s Democratic senator, Eugene J. McCarthy,

United States presidential election of 1972, American presidential election held on November 7, 1972, in which Republican Pres. Richard Nixon was elected to a second term, defeating Democrat George McGovern in one of the largest landslides in U.S. history. In January 1971 McGovern announced his

United States presidential election of 1976, American presidential election held on November 2, 1976, in which Democrat Jimmy Carter defeated Republican Pres. Gerald R. Ford. The campaign was conducted in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal that forced Pres. Richard M. Nixon to become the first

United States presidential election of 1980, American presidential election held on November 4, 1980, in which Republican Ronald Reagan defeated incumbent Democratic Pres. Jimmy Carter. A onetime movie star and president of the Screen Actor’s Guild (1947–1952), Reagan was originally a Democrat but

United States presidential election of 1984, American presidential election held on November 6, 1984, in which Republican Ronald Reagan was elected to a second term, defeating Democrat Walter Mondale, a former U.S. vice president. Reagan won 49 states en route to amassing 525 electoral votes to

United States presidential election of 1988, American presidential election held on November 8, 1988, in which Republican George H.W. Bush defeated Democrat Michael Dukakis. The 1988 campaign featured an open contest on both the Republican and Democratic sides, as Republican Pres. Ronald Reagan was

United States presidential election of 1992, American presidential election held on November 3, 1992, in which Democrat Bill Clinton defeated incumbent Republican Pres. George Bush. Independent candidate Ross Perot secured nearly 19 percent of the vote—the highest percentage of any third-party

United States presidential election of 1996, American presidential election held on November 5, 1996, in which Democrat Bill Clinton was elected to a second term, defeating Republican Bob Dole, a former U.S. senator from Kansas. Clinton had won his first term in 1992 against incumbent Republican

United States presidential election of 2000, American presidential election held on November 7, 2000, in which Republican George W. Bush narrowly lost the popular vote to Democrat Al Gore but defeated Gore in the electoral college. Gore, as Bill Clinton’s vice president for eight years, was the

United States presidential election of 2004, American presidential election held on November 2, 2004, in which Republican George W. Bush was elected to a second term, defeating Democrat John Kerry, a U.S senator from Massachusetts. In the primary campaign, Bush faced little opposition for the

On November 4, 2008, after a campaign that lasted nearly two years, Americans elected Illinois senator Barack Obama their 44th president. The result was historic, as Obama, a first-term U.S. senator, became, when he was inaugurated on January 20, 2009, the country’s first African American

American voters went to the polls on November 6, 2012, to determine—for the 57th time—their country’s president for the next four years. Incumbent Democratic President Barack Obama’s reelection bid was, from the outset, expected to be closely contested as the United States faced a number of

United States Presidential Election of 2016, American presidential election held on November 8, 2016, in which Republican Donald Trump lost the popular vote to Democrat Hillary Clinton by more than 2.8 million votes but won 30 states and the decisive electoral college with 304 electoral votes to

United States presidential election of 2020, American presidential election held on November 3, 2020, in the midst of the global coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic, in which Democrat Joe Biden, formerly the 47th vice president of the United States, defeated the incumbent president, Republican Donald

United States presidential election of 2024, American election, scheduled to be held on November 5, 2024, in which the Democratic incumbent, Pres. Joe Biden (2021– ), is projected to face Republican former president Donald Trump (2017–21), who lost to Biden in his bid for reelection in the United

The president and vice president of the United States are formally elected through an electoral college. Members (“electors”) of this electoral college are chosen through the popular vote in each state, and to be elected president a candidate must receive a majority of the electoral votes. If no

United States presidential inauguration, ceremony during which the president of the United States is sworn into office. It is held on January 20 of the year following a presidential election. Although the day is not a public holiday, many U.S. citizens attend the ceremony and accompanying

Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives: …second in the line of presidential succession, following the vice president.

B.F. Goodrich Company: …tire operations with those of Uniroyal to form the Uniroyal-Goodrich Tire Company. In the following year Goodrich sold off its remaining interest in Uniroyal-Goodrich, and in 1989 the venture was bought by French tire maker Michelin, which subsequently used BFGoodrich as a trademarked brand name of a line of tires.…

U.S. Secret Service, federal law-enforcement agency within the United States Department of Homeland Security tasked with the criminal investigation of counterfeiting and other financial crimes. After the assassination of Pres. William McKinley in 1901, the agency also assumed the role of chief

United States Senate, one of the two houses of the legislature (Congress) of the United States, established in 1789 under the Constitution. Each state elects two senators for six-year terms. The terms of about one-third of the Senate membership expire every two years, earning the chamber the

More than 2,000 people have served in the U.S. Senate since its establishment in 1789. Senators are charged with the important tasks of making laws, ratifying treaties, approving public appointments of high-ranking officials within the U.S. government, and adjudicating impeachment proceedings. The

United States service academies, Group of institutions of higher education for the training of military and merchant marine officers: the U.S. Military Academy (West Point), the U.S. Naval Academy (Annapolis), the U.S. Air Force Academy, the U.S. Coast Guard Academy (established 1876 near New

USS Arizona, U.S. battleship that sank during the Japanese attack on the naval base at Pearl Harbor, Oahu island, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941. More than 1,170 crewmen were killed. The Arizona is commemorated by a concrete memorial that spans the wreckage. The Arizona was built at the naval yard in

USS Indianapolis, U.S. Navy heavy cruiser that was sunk by a Japanese submarine on July 30, 1945, shortly after delivering the internal components of the atomic bombs that were later dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan. Up to 900 men initially survived the sinking, but many succumbed to shark

football: North and Central America and the Caribbean: The U.S. Soccer Federation formed in 1913, affiliated with FIFA, and sponsored competitions. Between the world wars, the United States attracted scores of European emigrants who played football for local teams sometimes sponsored by companies.

contour farming: Efforts by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service to promote contouring in the 1930s as an essential part of erosion control eventually led to its widespread adoption.

United States Space Force (USSF), sixth branch of the U.S. armed forces, whose mission is to lead space-related military operations within the U.S. Department of Defense. The USSF was established by the U.S. Congress via the fiscal year 2020 National Defense Authorization Act, having gathered

space debris: As of 2021, the United States Space Surveillance Network was tracking more than 15,000 pieces of space debris larger than 10 cm (4 inches) across. It is estimated that there are about 200,000 pieces between 1 and 10 cm (0.4 and 4 inches) across and that there could be…

United States Steel Corporation, leading U.S. producer of steel and related products, founded in 1901. At the beginning of the 20th century, a number of businessmen were involved in the formation of United States Steel Corporation, including Andrew Carnegie, Elbert H. Gary, Charles M. Schwab, and

Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, U.S. legislation (June 17, 1930) that raised import duties to protect American businesses and farmers, adding considerable strain to the international economic climate of the Great Depression. The act takes its name from its chief sponsors, Senator Reed Smoot of Utah,

tennis: Origin and early years: …Association and, in 1975, the U.S. Tennis Association (USTA). Under its auspices, the first official U.S. national championship, played under English rules, was held in 1881 at the Newport Casino, Newport, Rhode Island. The winner, Richard Sears, was U.S. champion for seven consecutive years.

harness racing: The decline and rise of harness racing.: …fourfold; and membership in the United States Trotting Association (founded in 1938 as a merger of other groups after the governance of harness racing had fallen into disarray) nearly quintupled.

crime: Sentencing: However, in United States v. Booker (2005), the U.S. Supreme Court found that judges could not use facts that had not been proved during the trial in order to enhance a sentence. In practice, this means that the guidelines are considered discretionary rather than mandatory—i.e., judges use…

United States v. American Library Association, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on June 23, 2003, ruled (6–3) that the Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA)—which requires public schools and libraries that receive federal funds or discounts to install Internet-filtering software that blocks

Edward Douglass White: United States and United States v. American Tobacco Company (both 1911) he promulgated the idea that a restraint of trade by a monopolistic business must be “unreasonable” to be illegal under the Sherman Act. His failure to define a “reasonable” restraint, coupled with the imprecise brevity of the…

Henry Baldwin: …Constitution and Government of the United States (1837), but his decisions on the Court were unpredictable. His most important opinion was handed down in the Florida Land Case, United States v. Arredondo (1832), which made strict adherence to treaties a basic element of public land policy.

criminal law: Requirements of jurisdiction: Supreme Court held in U.S. v. Bowman (1922) that most crimes enacted by Congress are to be read as covering only acts committed in the United States. However, this is not true of “criminal statutes which are, as a class, not logically dependent on their locality for the government’s…

executive privilege: Evolution of the principle of executive privilege: In United States v. Burr (1807), for example, in which Aaron Burr was being tried for treason, the U.S. Supreme Court did not require the Jefferson administration to turn over requested documents, though it did maintain that the courts had the right to request such documents…

constitutional law: Judicial review in the United States: …spending power first enunciated in United States v. Butler (1936). The outcome of this case was overtly hostile to the expansion of government power, since the Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional a tax provision of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 that was designed to encourage limitation of production. However, the…

Morrison Remick Waite: In United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U.S. 542 (1876), he stated that, despite its apparently plain language, the Fifteenth Amendment had not conferred a federal right of suffrage on blacks, because “the right to vote comes from the states.” In Hall v. De Cuir, 95 U.S.…

commerce clause: Interpretation of the commerce clause in United States Supreme Court cases: In the case of United States v. Darby (1941), although only some of the goods manufactured by Darby Lumber were to be shipped through interstate commerce, the Supreme Court held that the federal Fair Labor Standards Act (1938) could be applied to the intrastate production of those goods, because…

United States v. E.C. Knight Company, (1895), legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court first interpreted the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. The case began when the E.C. Knight Company gained control of the American Sugar Refining Company. By 1892 American Sugar enjoyed a virtual monopoly of sugar

Antonin Scalia: Judicial philosophy: Johnson (1989) and United States v. Eichman (1990), for example, he joined narrow majorities that struck down bans on flag burning on free-speech grounds, despite his professed sympathy toward such laws. In a series of decisions, he declared unconstitutional under the Fourth Amendment (which guarantees the right against…

William B. Woods: …most memorable opinions were in United States v. Harris, which struck down the Ku Klux Klan Act on grounds that the government had no right, under the 14th Amendment, to regulate the activities of individuals, and in Presser v. Illinois, which declared that the Bill of Rights limited the power…

criminal law: Mitigating circumstances and other defenses: In the oft-cited case of United States v. Holmes, in 1842, a longboat containing passengers and members of the crew of a sunken American vessel was cast adrift in the stormy sea. To prevent the boat from being swamped, members of the crew threw some of the passengers overboard. In…

Oliver Ellsworth: Life: His most controversial opinion was United States v. Isaac Williams (1799), which applied in the United States the common-law rule that a citizen may not expatriate himself without the consent of his government.

Antonin Scalia: Judicial philosophy: …track a suspect’s movements (United States v. Jones [2012]), and allowing a drug-detection dog to sniff at a suspect’s front door (Florida v. Jardines [2013]). Another of Scalia’s opinions that upset many conservatives was his ruling for the majority in Employment Division v. Smith (1990), which reduced the level…

exclusionary rule: …under legal attack, and in U.S. v. Leon (1984) the Supreme Court held that evidence obtained “in good faith” with a search warrant later ruled invalid was admissible. A central argument was the unacceptable social cost of excluding such evidence, a reason subsequently given for creating further exceptions to the…

United States v. Lopez, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on April 26, 1995, ruled (5–4) that the federal Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990 was unconstitutional because the U.S. Congress, in enacting the legislation, had exceeded its authority under the commerce clause of the Constitution.

attainder: Similarly, in United States v. Lovett (1946), the court invalidated as a bill of attainder a section of an appropriation bill forbidding the payment of salaries to named government officials who had been accused of being subversive. Later decisions, however, have declined to treat requirements of loyalty…