Cleopatra’s Achievements

The oldest child of King Ptolemy XII Auletes, Cleopatra was the last queen of the Macedonian dynasty that ruled Egypt between 323 and 30 bc. Alexander the Great’s general Ptolemy, who became King Ptolemy I Soter, founded the dynasty of Ptolemaic rulers. Upon her father’s death Cleopatra, then aged 18, inherited the throne alongside her younger brother Ptolemy XIII. At first Cleopatra served as the dominant ruler.

In 50 bc Ptolemy XIII wrested complete control of the throne, forcing Cleopatra to flee Egypt for Syria. There, she gathered support, and in 48 bc she returned to Egypt with troops to face her brother. Her first attempt, at Pelusium, on Egypt’s eastern border, was unsuccessful. Soon, however, she made the acquaintance of Julius Caesar. Cleopatra realized that she needed Caesar’s support if she was to regain her throne and to recover as much as possible of Egypt’s past dominions, which had included southern Syria and Palestine. Caesar and Cleopatra became lovers and spent the winter in Alexandria. Roman reinforcements arrived the following spring. Ptolemy XIII fled and drowned in the Nile. Cleopatra, now married to her brother Ptolemy XIV, was restored to the throne. In June 47 bc she gave birth to Ptolemy Caesar (also known as Caesarion, or “little Caesar”). The child’s name implies that he was Caesar’s son. Cleopatra paid at least one state visit to Rome, accompanied by her husband-brother and son. She was accommodated in Caesar’s private villa and was present in Rome when Caesar was murdered in 44 bc.

From the time of their meeting in Tarsus, Asia Minor, following Caesar’s assassination, Mark Antony was dazzled by Cleopatra. He followed her back to Alexandria. Cleopatra bore him twins in 40 bc. Although Antony returned to Rome and agreed to marry Octavia, sister of Octavian (later called Augustus), he was reunited with Cleopatra by 37 bc. Cleopatra and Antony lived what some have interpreted as a life of debauchery and indulgence. But they were also concerned with the continuation and extension of their power. When Antony reunited with Cleopatra, he asked for financial support for his military campaigns. In return, Cleopatra requested the return of much of Egypt’s eastern empire, which had been taken over by Rome. Antony’s military campaigns were unsuccessful, but he still made a triumphal return to Alexandria in 34 bc, ready for the over-the-top celebration called “the Donations of Alexandria.” Crowds flocked to see Cleopatra, Antony, and their children seated on golden thrones. Antony announced that Caesarion was Caesar’s son, which would usurp Octavian’s position in Caesar’s line of succession. Antony and Cleopatra also awarded lands to their children, alarming Octavian when he heard the news. Octavian started a propaganda war against the couple, convincing Romans that Antony was giving Roman lands to a foreign woman and that he would possibly move the capital from Rome to Alexandria. As a result, the Roman Senate deprived Antony of his power and declared war on Cleopatra. Octavian defeated the joint forces of Cleopatra and Antony at the Battle of Actium (31 bc). Antony later committed suicide and so too did Cleopatra, possibly by means of an asp. Cleopatra was 39 years old at the time of her death and had been queen for 22 years and Antony’s partner for 11 years.

As Cleopatra had lived in a time when historians regularly recorded events, her name has been preserved in history. After her death Octavian relegated her story to that of an immoral foreign woman who manipulated Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Meanwhile, Muslim scholars wrote their own version of her history, portraying her as a gifted scholar and ruler. William Shakespeare’s play Antony and Cleopatra (1606–07) portrayed Cleopatra as a true heroine, a status that has lingered since in works of art ranging from plays to paintings to operas. In the 20th century Cleopatra’s ambitions as well as her romances with Caesar and Antony were depicted in lavish Hollywood films starring actresses such as Theda Bara (1917), Claudette Colbert (1934), and Elizabeth Taylor (1963).