The area of battery technology that has attracted the most research since the early 1990s is a class of batteries with a lithium anode. Because of the high chemical activity of lithium, nonaqueous (organic or inorganic) electrolytes have to be used. Such electrolytes include selected solid crystalline salts (see below). This whole new science has encouraged the commercial production of some batteries having no separator layer between the anode and the liquid cathode, an unlikely condition for success in aqueous systems. A stable protective layer automatically forms on the lithium and serves as a separator. The protective layer becomes more porous on discharge to permit high-current operation at nearly constant voltages near 3.6 volts. This allows very high power density and energy density. Most commercial cells for the consumer market do have separators placed during cell assembly in the factories yet still offer high energy and power density. Lithium batteries are especially attractive for use in certain aerospace applications, terrestrial portable military equipment, and such civilian applications as portable computers, cellular telephones, personal paging systems, heart pacemakers, and automated cameras.

Despite their obvious advantages, there are some limitations on the use of lithium batteries. Lithium is very sensitive to high temperatures, and the heat generated during discharging or recharging lithium batteries can cause the cell temperature to rise to the point at which battery ingredients combine spontaneously and the cell smokes or catches fire in a phenomenon known as “thermal runaway.” Special separators and cell constructions have been developed to minimize this risk. Additionally, lithium cells must be manufactured under very dry conditions to prevent the absorption of moisture from the air; sealed inside a lithium cell, moisture combines with the lithium to produce lithium oxides and hydrogen gas, and the gas pressure can lead to cell failure. Lithium must be handled very carefully in the factory and many major manufacturers have had fires in their cell assembly rooms. The need to take measures to prevent fires, the required dry room conditions, and the inclusion of organic compounds in cell formulas combine to make lithium cells somewhat more expensive than other types of common batteries. In addition, there are government safety regulations that limit the weight of lithium in commercial shipments, making it prohibitively expensive to distribute lithium cells larger than the AA or AAA size.

Lithium–iron sulfide batteries in small sizes offer high capacity and low cost for both light and heavy loads, depending on the construction of the inside of the cell. In operations requiring 1.5 to 1.8 volts, these batteries are a potential substitute for some zinc–silver oxide batteries. In constructions where the electrodes consist of rolled-up (“jelly roll”) strips like those of small nickel-cadmium batteries (discussed in the section Alkaline storage batteries), higher power density is obtained while still retaining high capacity for premium heavy-duty use, such as for digital cameras, motor-driven toys, and cellular telephones. A typical electrolyte might be lithium tetrafluoroborate salt in a solvent mixture of propylene carbonate, 2-methyl-2-oxazolidone, and dimethoxyethane.

Lithium–manganese dioxide cell systems have slowly gained wider application in small appliances, especially automatic cameras. Batteries of this kind have an operating voltage of 2.8–3.2 volts and offer high energy density and relatively low cost for the capability of the cells.

The lithium–carbon monofluoride system has been among the more successful early commercial lithium miniature batteries. It has been used extensively in cameras and smaller devices, providing about 3.2 volts per cell, high power density, and long shelf life. Good low-temperature performance and constant voltage discharge over time are provided as well. The cost of carbon monofluoride is high, however.

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Energy & Fossil Fuels

Lithium–thionyl chloride batteries provide the highest energy density and power density commercially available. Thionyl chloride, a very corrosive and toxic chemical, serves not only as the electrolyte solvent but also as the cathode material. Formation of a film of lithium chloride salt on the lithium prevents a runaway reaction between the lithium anode and the adjacent liquid cathode material. The electrical contact and reaction centre of the cathode are composed of porous pressed and bonded carbon powder. The performance of this type of battery system at room temperature is very impressive. Moreover, the cell can operate at −54 °C (−65 °F), well below the point where aqueous systems function. Because of its high energy density and corrosive electrolyte, the lithium–thionyl chloride battery must be used with care and not be opened, burned, or disposed of casually. Such cells are useful for powering military equipment, providing backup power for aerospace systems, and operating personal pagers.

Lithium–sulfur dioxide batteries have been used extensively in some emergency power units for aircraft and in military cold-weather applications (e.g., radio operation). The cathode consists of a gas under pressure with another chemical as electrolyte salt; this is analogous to the thionyl chloride electrolyte and its liquid cathode. The system functions well but has been found occasionally to vent noxious sulfur dioxide, especially after cold discharge and subsequent warm-up. The release of corrosive or toxic gases by any type of battery in a closed space, especially in an airplane, constitutes a significant design disadvantage.

Air-depolarized batteries

A very practical way to obtain high energy density in a battery is to employ the oxygen in air for a “liquid” cathode material. If paired with an anode such as zinc, long cell life at low cost per watt-hour (for a dry cell) can be obtained because a given battery’s volume may be devoted more completely to anode and electrolyte material. The battery, however, must be constructed in such a way that the oxygen is prevented from reaching the anode, especially during storage.

Zinc-air systems are commercially available in forms from very small cells, such as hearing-aid batteries, to relatively large boxlike batteries. Their principle and design are simple, but the actual batteries are, from a technical standpoint, difficult to manufacture. The “air electrode” is extremely thin and usually has a waterproof polymer-bonded porous carbon layer with a metal mesh reinforcement. A catalyst and a booster oxide may be included with the carbon to render oxygen more effectively active. The sealing of the edges of the composite electrode film and electrolyte proofing of the pores have been achieved with fluorocarbons and plastics. Fundamental improvements in electrode assembly, cell seal, and vent designs continue to be sought in scientific and engineering studies.

Aluminum-air batteries have not been a major commercial success to date, but their light weight and potentially high energy density have attracted much government support in the United States. Research efforts have been concentrated on developing better aluminum alloys and techniques to resist corrosion during shelf storage. Similarly, inhibitors for inclusion in the alkaline electrolyte are under study. Aluminum-air batteries also are being considered for applications in which the metal anode, the electrolyte, and the reaction products are mechanically removed and replaced to create a kind of fuel cell. If stability and design problems can be overcome, this system may very well prove attractive for many applications, including use in electric cars or trucks.