zero-energy building (ZEB), any building or construction characterized by zero net energy consumption and zero carbon emissions calculated over a period of time. Zero-energy buildings (ZEBs) usually use less energy than traditional buildings as well as generate their own energy on-site to use in the building; hence, many are independent from the national (electricity) grid. ZEBs have emerged in response to stringent environmental standards, both regulatory and voluntary, introduced to address increasingly significant environmental issues such as climate change, natural resource conservation, pollution, ecology, and population.

Many people in developing countries (and elsewhere) already live in zero-energy buildings out of necessity, including huts, tents, and caves exposed to temperature extremes and without access to electricity. The notion of a “zero-energy building” in a modern sense has been discussed since the 1970s, prompted by the petroleum shocks of the decade and subsequent concerns about the consequences of fossil fuel dependency. Definitions of ZEBs vary from those related to net energy inputs versus outputs to those that balance the financial costs of energy use with the costs associated with equipment used in the structure for energy production—from photovoltaics (solar cells) and wind turbines, for example—combined with the benefits associated with exporting energy generated by the structure. The energy in a building can be measured in many ways (e.g., cost, energy, or carbon emissions), and different views exist on the relative importance of energy production and energy conservation in achieving a net energy balance.

ZEB energy generation

ZEBs need to produce their own energy on site to meet their electricity and heating or cooling needs. Various microgeneration technologies may be used to provide heat and electricity to the building, including the following:

• Solar (solar hot water, photovoltaics [PV]).
• Wind (wind turbines).
• Biomass (heaters and stoves, boilers, and community heating schemes).
• Combined heat and power (CHP) and micro-CHP for use with natural gas, biomass, sewerage gas, and other biogases.
• Community heating (including utilizing waste heat from large-scale power generation).
• Heat pumps (air source [ASHP] and ground source [GSHP] and geothermal heating systems).
• Water (small-scale hydropower).
• Other (including fuel cells using hydrogen generated from any of the above renewable sources).

Many homebuilders have serious concerns about whether microgeneration and renewable energy technologies can deliver the energy generation requirements to produce adequate working, cost-effective ZEBs. Builders fear that owners and occupiers may not accept the required new technologies and could choose to retrofit energy-intensive appliances and systems, which would ultimately undermine the zero-energy objectives. There are further concerns that failure to maintain the new systems and technologies adequately may expose owners and occupiers to health and safety risks.

Home Energy Rating System

A Home Energy Rating System (or HERS) is a measurement of a home’s energy efficiency used primarily in the United States. HERS ratings make use of a relative energy-use index called the HERS Index. The HERS Index typically ranges from 0 to 150 spans, with a home with a score of 150 being extremely energy intensive in terms of purchased energy. A HERS Index of 100 represents the energy use of the “American Standard Building” and an index of zero indicates that the proposed building uses no net purchased energy (a zero-energy building).

Other countries have similar schemes. In Australia it is known as the Nationwide House Energy Rating Scheme and is based upon a ten-star rating, and in the UK the Energy Performance Certificates (EPCs) are rated from A to G. HERS provides a standardized evaluation of a home’s energy efficiency and expected energy costs. The evaluation is conducted in accordance with uniform standards and includes a detailed home energy use assessment, conducted by a state-certified assessor using a suite of nationally accredited procedures and software tools. The rating can be used to judge the current energy efficiency of a home or to estimate the efficiency of a home that is being built or refurbished. The U.S. Department of Energy recommended a Home Energy Rating report that will typically contain the following:

• Overall rating score of the house.
• Recommended cost-effective energy modifications.
• Estimates of the cost, annual savings, and useful projected life of the modifications.
• The potential improved rating score after the installation of recommended modifications.
• The estimated projected annual energy costs for the existing home, before and after the modifications.

The United Kingdom’s EPC scheme

EPCs are required in England and Wales for domestic properties. Rental properties, which have a certificate valid for 10 years, have been required on new tenancies after 2008. Display Energy Certificates (DECs) are also required for larger public buildings, thus enabling everyone to see how energy efficient the country’s public buildings are. The DEC has to be displayed at all times in a prominent place clearly visible to the public, and it is accompanied by an Advisory Report that lists cost-effective measures to improve the energy rating of the building. The introduction of EPCs has been controversial, however, and it has been opposed by many in the UK housing industry such as the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors.

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