microgeneration, small-scale generation of heat and power designed to suit the needs of communities, businesses, or residences. Microgeneration relies on power produced at a generation facility that is smaller than an industrial-scale power plant that serves a city or region. Power is produced locally rather than at great distances away, and thus transmission lines are shorter, resulting in less power lost during the distribution process. Microgeneration often has a smaller carbon footprint and less environmental impact than industrial-scale generation since it relies more on alternate energy sources such as biomass, solar cells, wind turbines, hydrogen fuel cells, and hydroelectric power.

Process

Microgeneration uses a variety of technologies. In addition to a connection to a country’s electrical grid (electrical power distribution network), if applicable, there must be a power plant and infrastructure for the storage and conversion of energy. The energy-storage apparatus is necessary for efficiency and to make surplus energy available when the demand is greater than the supply being generated. Battery storage is a common solution, but hydrogen fuel cells, flywheel energy storage, and pumped hydroelectric energy storage are also used. Power-conditioning equipment is used to convert energy from direct current to usable alternating current. Surge protectors, switches, and groundings constitute the necessary safety equipment, while meters monitor power consumption, power fed into the grid, and energy storage.

Microgeneration systems vary greatly from locale to locale. For instance, in the urbanized developed world, a residence or business may keep its connection to the traditional power grid but operate some alternate means of power generation, so that it draws from the grid only when additional power is needed or when the microgeneration system is being repaired. Retaining a connection to the grid also allows the delivery of surplus power from microgeneration back to the utility.

Microgeneration is necessary for autonomous buildings, which operate independently from the local infrastructure. (Those buildings are separated from the electrical and natural gas grids, communication systems, water systems, and sewage-treatment systems.) In some parts of the world, the principal benefit to autonomy is not environmental responsibility but the ability to continue functioning when the national or regional grid is unreliable. In the developed world an autonomous residence is sometimes called “a house with no bills.” Because start-up costs are high, microgeneration must be planned carefully and thoughtfully to be economically feasible, but certain technologies such as wind turbines and solar panels have benefited from economies of scale (a reduction in a technology’s cost as its production increases).

Net metering

Microgeneration adopters experience cost savings by using less energy from the grid, and those who create surplus power can make a profit by selling excess electricity back to local electrical utilities. In the United States, under the 2005 Energy Policy Act, all public electric utilities are required to make net metering available to customers on request. The process of net metering credits the bills of nonutility net energy producers when they add electricity to the grid, which reduces the amount they pay for electricity. It records energy inflows and outflows and bills customers only for the difference between the amount used and the amount produced. Whether or not credits in the customer’s favour—when more energy has been generated than consumed—roll over to the next billing cycle varies from state to state. In most states, credits roll over from month to month; however, some states provide annual credits instead. State laws also vary on whether electric utilities can limit the percentage of subscribers who are signed up for net metering, whether there is a power limit on energy inflows, and how customers whose accounts end the billing year in a credit are compensated.

The legal environment relevant to microgeneration also varies. In the United States there are federal and, in many cases, state income tax credits available for the use of renewable energy; however, some of those programs are controversial because they effectively transform the tax credit into an increased tax burden paid by people who do not use microgeneration. In addition, many utilities feel threatened by net-metering programs because they typically herald losses in revenue; microgeneration adopters use less utility-produced power, and net-metering laws compel utilities to buy power from them.

In the United Kingdom the Microgeneration Certification Scheme (MCS) covers all microgeneration technologies. MCS was the foundation of the country’s Low Carbon Buildings Programme, which rewarded green buildings with government grants to offset their initial costs.

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