The metal
- Key People:
- Abram Stevens Hewitt
- John Fritz
Hot metal (blast-furnace iron)
Most blast furnaces are linked to a basic oxygen steel plant, for which the hot metal typically contains 4 to 4.5 percent carbon, 0.6 to 0.8 percent silicon, 0.03 percent sulfur, 0.7 to 0.8 percent manganese, and 0.15 percent phosphorus. Tapping temperatures are in the range 1,400° to 1,500° C (2,550° to 2,700° F); to save energy, the hot metal is transferred directly to the steel plant with a temperature loss of about 100° C (200° F).
The major determinants of the composition of basic iron are the hearth temperature and the choice of iron ores. For instance, carbon content is fixed both by the temperature and by the amounts of other elements present in the iron. Sulfur and silicon are both temperature-dependent and generally vary in opposite directions, a high temperature producing low sulfur and high silicon levels. Furnace size also influences silicon, so that large furnaces yield low-silicon iron. Phosphorus, on the other hand, is determined entirely by the amount present in the original charge. Like silica, manganous oxide is partially reduced by carbon, and its final concentration depends on the hearth temperature and slag composition.
Cast iron
Iron production is relatively unsophisticated. It mostly involves remelting charges consisting of pig iron, steel scrap, foundry scrap, and ferroalloys to give the appropriate composition. The cupola, which resembles a small blast furnace, is the most common melting unit. Cold pig iron and scrap are charged from the top onto a bed of hot coke through which air is blown. Alternatively, a metallic charge is melted in a coreless induction furnace or in a small electric-arc furnace.
There are two basic types of cast iron—namely, white and gray.
White iron
White cast irons are usually made by limiting the silicon content to a maximum of 1.3 percent, so that no graphite is present and all of the carbon exists as cementite (Fe3C). The name white refers to the bright appearance of the fracture surfaces when a piece of the iron is broken in two. White irons are too hard to be machined and must be ground to shape. Brittleness limits their range of applications, but they are sometimes used when wear resistance is required, as in brake linings.
The main use for white irons is as the starting material for malleable cast irons, in which the cementite formed during casting is decomposed by heat treatment. Such irons contain about 0.6 to 1.3 percent silicon, which is enough to promote cementite decomposition during the heat treatment but not enough to produce graphite flakes during casting. Whiteheart malleable iron is made by using an oxidizing atmosphere to remove carbon from the surface of white iron castings heated to a temperature of 900° C (1,650° F). Blackheart malleable iron, on the other hand, is made by annealing white iron in a neutral atmosphere, again at a temperature of 900° C. In this process, cementite is decomposed to form rosette-shaped graphite nodules, which are less embrittling than flakes. Blackheart iron is an important material that is widely used in agricultural and engineering machinery. Even better mechanical properties can be obtained by the addition of small amounts of magnesium or cerium to molten iron, since these elements have the effect of transforming the graphite into spherical nodules. These SG (spheroidal graphite) irons, which are also called ductile irons, are strong and malleable; they are also easy to cast and are sometimes preferred to steel castings and forgings.
Gray iron
Gray cast irons generally contain more than 2 percent silicon, and carbon exists as flakes of graphite embedded in a combination of ferrite and pearlite. The name arises because graphite imparts a dull gray appearance to fracture surfaces. Phosphorus is present in most cast irons, lowering the freezing point and lengthening the solidification period so that gray irons can be cast into intricate shapes. Unfortunately, graphite formation is enhanced by slow solidification, and the crack-inducing effect of graphite flakes reduces the metal’s strength and malleability. Gray cast irons are therefore unsuitable when shock resistance is required, but they are ideal for such purposes as engine cylinder blocks, domestic stoves, and manhole covers. They are easy to machine because the graphite causes the metal to break off in small chips, and they also have a high damping capacity (i.e., they are able to absorb vibration). As a result, gray cast irons are used as frames for rotating machinery such as lathes.
High-alloy iron
The properties of both white and gray cast irons can be enhanced by the inclusion of alloying elements such as nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), and molybdenum (Mo). For example, Ni-Hard, a white iron containing 4 to 5 percent nickel and up to 1.5 percent chromium, is used to make metalworking rolls. Irons in the Ni-Resist range, which contain 14 to 25 percent nickel, are nonmagnetic and have good heat and corrosion resistance.
Casting methods
Iron castings can be made in many ways, but sand-casting is the most common. First, a pattern of the required shape (slightly enlarged to allow for shrinkage) is made in wood, metal, or plastic. It is then placed in a two-piece molding box and firmly packed in sand that is held together by a bonding agent. After the sand has hardened, the molding box is split open to allow the pattern to be removed and used again, and then the box is reassembled and molten metal poured into the cavity to create the casting.
A greensand casting is made in a sand mold bonded with clay, the name referring not to the colour of the sand but to the fact that the mold is uncured. Dry-sand molds are similar, except that the sand is baked before receiving any metal. Alternatively, hardening can be effected by mixing sodium silicate into the sand to create chemical bonds that make baking unnecessary. For heavy castings, molds made of coarse loam sand backed up with brick and faced with highly refractory material are used.
Sand-casting produces rough surfaces, and a much better finish can be achieved by shell molding. This process involves bringing a mixture of sand and a thermosetting resin into contact with a heated metal pattern to form an envelope or shell of hardened sand. Two half-shells are then assembled to make a mold. Wax patterns also can be used to make one-piece shell molds, the wax being removed by melting before the resin is cured in an oven.
For some high-precision applications, iron is cast into permanent molds made of either cast iron or graphite. It is important, however, to ensure that the molds are warmed before use and that their internal surfaces are given a coating to release the casting after solidification.
Most castings are static in that they rely on gravity to cause the liquid metal to fill the mold. Centrifugal casting, however, uses a rotating mold to produce hollow cylindrical castings, such as cast-iron drainpipes.
Wrought iron
Although it is no longer manufactured, the wrought iron that survives contains less than 0.035 percent carbon. It therefore consists essentially of ferrite, but its strength and malleability are reduced by entrained puddling slag, which is elongated into stringers by rolling. As a result, breaking a bar of wrought iron reveals a fibrous fracture not unlike that of wood. The other elements present are silicon (0.075 to 0.15 percent), sulfur (0.01 to 0.2 percent), phosphorus (0.1 to 0.25 percent), and manganese (0.05 to 0.1 percent). This relative purity is the reason why wrought iron has a reputation for good corrosion resistance.
Iron powder
Iron powders produced by crushing and grinding or by atomizing a stream of molten metal are made into small components by pressing or rolling them into compacts, which are then sintered. The density of the compacts depends on the pressure used, but porous compacts suitable for self-lubricating bearings or filters can be given accurate dimensions by using this technique.
Chemical compounds
Apart from being a source of iron, hematite is used for its reddish colour in cosmetics and as a pigment in paints and roof tiles. Also, when cobalt and nickel oxides are added to hematite, a group of ceramic materials closely related to magnetite, known as ferrites, are formed. These are ferromagnetic (i.e., highly magnetic) and are widely used in computers and in electronic transmission and receiving equipment.
Iron is a constituent of human blood, and various iron compounds have medical uses. Ferric ammonium citrate is an appetite stimulator, and ferrous gluconate, ferrous sulfate, and ferric pyrophosphate are among compounds used to treat anemia. Ferric salts act as coagulants and are applied to wounds to promote healing.
Iron compounds are also widely used in agriculture. For example, ferrous sulfate is applied as a spray to acid-loving plants, and other compounds are used as fungicides.
Robert Donald Walker