Controlling temperature

Deoxidation reactions carried out in the ladle are exothermic and thus raise the temperature of the liquid steel, but the steel also loses heat by radiation from the top surface, by heating of the ladle lining, and by heat flux through the lining and shell. Temperature drops that take place when just holding the steel can range from 0.3° to 2° C per minute. (Small ladles, owing to their high surface-to-volume ratio, have a greater temperature loss than large ladles.) The rate of temperature drop then slows as the refractories become heated and a steady flow of heat prevails through the lining and slag layer.

Tapping at the right temperature is necessary in order to meet critical temperature windows for teeming or casting operations. Heat losses during and after tap can usually be predicted by computer, using a process model that considers the temperature and configuration of the tap stream, the thermal condition of the ladle before tap, the thicknesses of the ladle lining and slag layer, the expected holding times and stirring conditions, and the thermal effects of alloying additions. Actual control over steel temperature can be achieved in a ladle furnace (LF). This is a small electric-arc furnace with an 8- to 25-megavolt-ampere transformer, three electrodes for arc heating, and the ladle acting as the furnace shell—as shown in A in the figure. Argon or electromagnetic stirring is applied for better heat transfer. Most LFs can raise the temperature of the steel by 4° C per minute, and several shops accomplish an increase of 4° to 6° C by inducing a strong exothermic chemical reaction (for instance, by feeding aluminum and injecting oxygen) at the stirring station. Subsequent argon stirring removes most of the alumina inclusions formed by this process. Both heating technologies permit long holding times of full ladles and improve the continuous caster operation.

Slag removal

Keeping furnace slags on the molten steel too long can result in a reversion of elements such as phosphorus back into the steel. To avoid this, slag can be removed at slag-skimming stations, where the ladle is tilted forward and a rake scrapes the slag into a slag pot parked beneath the ladle. Some shops use a vacuum system, which sucks the slag off the liquid steel and granulates it instantaneously. In either case, after slag removal the steel is covered with slag formers or an insulating layer to minimize heat loss and reoxidation. Special equipment is used to quickly place a blanket of material on the steel surface.

Stirring and injecting

In most continuous casting operations, it is necessary to maintain minimal fluctuation in steel temperature, and this requires the use of a ladle stirring station to establish a uniform temperature and chemical composition throughout the ladle. The steel can be stirred by argon injected through a refractory-lined lance or through a permeable refractory block in the bottom of the ladle, or it can be stirred by an electromagnetic coil.

Additions are usually made at the stirring station by a wire feeder, which runs a heavy wire at controlled speed through a refractory-covered lance and into the steel. Aluminum wire is often used for trimming; other materials, such as calcium-silicon, zirconium, and rare-earth metals, are often enclosed in thin steel tubes and are fed by the same machines. The wires and filled tubes are normally shipped to steel plants in large coils, but there are also machines that fill the tubes with the appropriate materials on-site.

Another widely used treatment is powder injection. Powdered metal is fluidized by argon in a pressure vessel and injected by a refractory-lined lance deep into the liquid steel. Because powder has a large contact surface area, it reacts quickly with the steel. Deep injection is beneficial when adding materials such as calcium or magnesium, which evaporate at steelmaking temperature, because ferrostatic pressure suppresses the evaporation of these metals for some time. Powders are shipped to the shop in sealed containers or in special tank cars topped with inert gas.

Desulfurizing

Many powder-injection stations are used for desulfurization. One effective desulfurizer is a calcium-silicon alloy containing 30 percent calcium. Metallic calcium desulfurizes by forming the very stable compound calcium sulfide (CaS), and it is alloyed with silicon because pure calcium reacts instantaneously with water and is therefore difficult to handle. Injecting four kilograms of calcium-silicon per ton of steel can remove approximately three-quarters of the sulfur, so that the sulfur content will drop, for example, from 0.016 to 0.004 percent. For steel grades that do not permit silicon additions, a magnesium-lime mixture is used. Magnesium is a good desulfurizer, and it also acts as a deoxidizer by combining locally with dissolved oxygen. This makes it possible for the lime to desulfurize the steel according to the following reaction:

Like magnesium, lime has a double function, because it helps to prevent the very low-melting magnesium powder from melting inside the lance.

Adding calcium accomplishes another important function. Sulfur is normally present in solidified steel in the form of manganese sulfide inclusions, which are soft at hot-rolling temperatures and are rolled into long strings or platelets. This results in poor physical properties of the steel in directions perpendicular to that of the rolling. The addition of calcium improves these properties by forming strong inclusions, containing mainly calcium sulfide, that are not plastic at hot-rolling temperatures. This phenomenon, called inclusion shape control, can also be achieved by small additions of zirconium or rare earth.