thermoelectric power generator
- Related Topics:
- energy conversion
- heat sink
thermoelectric power generator, any of a class of solid-state devices that either convert heat directly into electricity or transform electrical energy into thermal power for heating or cooling. Such devices are based on thermoelectric effects involving interactions between the flow of heat and of electricity through solid bodies.
All thermoelectric power generators have the same basic configuration, as shown in the . A heat source provides the high temperature, and the heat flows through a thermoelectric converter to a heat sink, which is maintained at a temperature below that of the source. The temperature differential across the converter produces direct current (DC) to a load (RL) having a terminal voltage (V) and a terminal current (I). There is no intermediate energy conversion process. For this reason, thermoelectric power generation is classified as direct power conversion. The amount of electrical power generated is given by I2RL, or VI.
A unique aspect of thermoelectric energy conversion is that the direction of energy flow is reversible. So, for instance, if the load resistor is removed and a DC power supply is substituted, the thermoelectric device shown in the figure can be used to draw heat from the “heat source” element and lower its temperature. In this configuration, the reversed energy-conversion process of thermoelectric devices is invoked, using electrical power to pump heat and produce refrigeration.
This reversibility distinguishes thermoelectric energy converters from many other conversion systems, such as thermionic power converters. Electrical input power can be directly converted to pumped thermal power for heating or refrigerating, or thermal input power can be converted directly to electrical power for lighting, operating electrical equipment, and other work. Any thermoelectric device can be applied in either mode of operation, though the design of a particular device is usually optimized for its specific purpose.
Systematic study began on thermoelectricity between about 1885 and 1910. By 1910 Edmund Altenkirch, a German scientist, satisfactorily calculated the potential efficiency of thermoelectric generators and delineated the parameters of the materials needed to build practical devices. Unfortunately, metallic conductors were the only materials available at the time, rendering it unfeasible to build thermoelectric generators with an efficiency of more than about 0.5 percent. By 1940 a semiconductor-based generator with a conversion efficiency of 4 percent had been developed. After 1950, in spite of increased research and development, gains in thermoelectric power-generating efficiency were relatively small, with efficiencies of not much more than 10 percent by the late 1980s. Better thermoelectric materials will be required in order to go much beyond this performance level. Nevertheless, some low-power varieties of thermoelectric generators have proven to be of considerable practical importance. Those fueled by radioactive isotopes are the most versatile, reliable, and generally used power source for isolated or remote sites, such as for recording and transmitting data from space.
Major types of thermoelectric generators
Thermoelectric power generators vary in geometry, depending on the type of heat source and heat sink, the power requirement, and the intended use. During World War II, some thermoelectric generators were used to power portable communications transmitters. Substantial improvements were made in semiconductor materials and in electrical contacts between 1955 and 1965 that expanded the practical range of application. In practice, many units require a power conditioner to convert the generator output to a usable voltage.
Fossil-fuel generators
Generators have been constructed to use natural gas, propane, butane, kerosene, jet fuels, and wood, to name but a few heat sources. Commercial units are usually in the 10- to 100-watt output power range. These are for use in remote areas in applications such as navigational aids, data collection and communications systems, and cathodic protection, which prevents electrolysis from corroding metallic pipelines and marine structures.
Solar-source generators
Solar thermoelectric generators have been used with some success to power small irrigation pumps in remote areas and underdeveloped regions of the world. An experimental system has been described in which warm surface ocean water is used as the heat source and cooler deep ocean water as the heat sink. Solar thermoelectric generators have been designed to supply electric power in orbiting spacecraft, though they have not been able to compete with silicon solar cells, which have better efficiency and lower unit weight. However, consideration has been given to systems featuring both heat pumping and power generation for thermal control of orbiting spacecraft. Utilizing solar heat from the Sun-oriented side of the spacecraft, thermoelectric devices can generate electrical power for use by other thermoelectric devices in dark areas of the spacecraft and to dissipate heat from the vehicle.
Nuclear-fueled generators
The decay products of radioactive isotopes can be used to provide a high-temperature heat source for thermoelectric generators. Because thermoelectric device materials are relatively immune to nuclear radiation and because the source can be made to last for a long period of time, such generators provide a useful source of power for many unattended and remote applications. For example, radioisotope thermoelectric generators provide electric power for isolated weather monitoring stations, for deep-ocean data collection, for various warning and communications systems, and for spacecraft. In addition, a low-power radioisotope thermoelectric generator was developed as early as 1970 and used to power cardiac pacemakers. The power range of radioisotope thermoelectric generators is generally between 10−6 and 100 watts.