water infrastructure in India

water infrastructure in India, infrastructure for the holistic management of the water resources of India. The infrastructure includes dams, irrigation systems, and reservoirs and ensures the collection, storage, and distribution of water to agriculture, industries, and households. Vital for sustaining economic growth and food security, a robust water infrastructure is the backbone of all agricultural and industrial activity. It also plays a critical role in guaranteeing access to clean drinking water, generating hydroelectric power, controlling floods, and replenishing groundwater. As India’s water resources are stretched thin by a growing population and environmental challenges, the modernization and continued development of the network is critical for sustainable development.

Major sources of water

• Groundwater: Water existing underground and stored in aquifers is referred to as groundwater. Close to 40 percent of usable water in India comes from the ground. Groundwater irrigation is the source for more than 60 percent of the total irrigated area in India, and groundwater supplies more than 80 percent of rural drinking water.
• Surface water: Water in rivers, lakes, wetlands, and reservoirs is surface water. It accounts for more than 60 percent of India’s usable water and is primarily used for agricultural and industrial activities. Water in such rivers as the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Barak account for 60 percent of the total surface water in India, owing to high precipitation in their catchment areas. In the southern parts of the country much of the surface water comes from the Krishna and the Godavari rivers.
• Rainwater: India receives about 4,000 billion cubic meters in rainfall annually. But only a small portion is usable, with most of it replenishing groundwater and surface-water sources. A small amount is collected and used through rainwater harvesting systems.
• Glaciers: Located among the snow-capped mountains of the vast Himalayas, glaciers are an important source of water in India. For rivers originating in the cold peaks of the Himalayas—such as the Ganges, the Indus, and the Brahmaputra—glacial melt accounts for 30–50 percent of annual flow.

Historical background

India has a long history of water conservation and management dating to the intricate subterranean drainage system of the Indus valley civilization (2500–1700 bce), one of the most advanced in the ancient world. Empires and kingdoms in medieval India used an extensive network of stepwells and canals for storing water and sustaining economic activity. Recognizing the importance of water as a natural resource, the British colonial government also constructed vast irrigation networks and modern canals.

This evolution continued after India gained independence in 1947. During this time the country faced many water challenges. Millions of lives were lost in frequent droughts and famines. Recurrent crop failures because of unpredictable monsoon rainfall destroyed the livelihoods of farmers and wreaked havoc on agriculture. Despite prioritizing industrial development, the newly independent nation’s industries required a steady water supply, which was not readily available. Access to drinking water, particularly in rural areas, was limited. To address these challenges, starting in the late 1940s the Indian government built multipurpose dams, mega irrigation canals, and vast groundwater networks.

Water storage and distribution infrastructure

Irrigation systems

Irrigation is the controlled distribution of water to the soil, mainly for crop growth. A strong irrigation network is key to agriculture development and offsets the challenges posed by insufficient rainfall and unavailability of water. Irrigation systems tap water mainly from the surface and ground. They ensure the year-round availability of multiple crops, protect farmers from entirely depending on erratic rainfall, and strengthen the country’s food security.

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Irrigating a Desert

The Indira Gandhi Canal (1983) is one of the world’s most ambitious irrigation projects. It transformed the parched landscape of the Thar Desert in Rajasthan into fertile, cultivable land. The 400-mile (650-km) canal (the longest in India) also provided drinking water to millions of people.

The main systems of irrigation in India include wells, canals, and tanks, which store and distribute water using various techniques:

• Surface irrigation: Distribution of water through gravitational flow to the soil and crops. This method often leads to flooding of cultivated land.
• Sprinkler irrigation: The controlled spraying of water from sprinkler pipes to a cultivated area. This technique is more efficient as excess water is not expended.
• Subirrigation: Effective in water scarce regions, subirrigation systems pump water from below the soil to plant roots. These systems raise or lower water levels depending on water availability and plant needs.
• Drip irrigation: Widely regarded as the most efficient irrigation technique, water is applied to plant roots at a very low rate. It allows for the efficient use of water and helps maintain optimal soil moisture levels.

The development of irrigation systems in India remains a priority for the government, which has undertaken several massive irrigation projects, including many multipurpose river development projects. They include the Indira Gandhi Canal (1983, Rajasthan), the Teesta Barrage Project (1990, West Bengal), the Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project (2019, Telangana), and the Polavaram Irrigation Project (ongoing, Andhra Pradesh).

Water scarcity

Although India has abundant water resources and strong infrastructure to manage them, the country is on the verge of a severe water crisis. Rapid population growth has increased demand for water to unsustainable levels. The rise in global temperatures is depleting rivers and melting glaciers at alarming rates. Moreover, the widespread pollution of surface and groundwater sources has made large reserves unusable.

A key factor in India’s water crisis is the depletion of groundwater sources, which are being emptied faster than they can be replenished. Although India has more surface water than groundwater, the country’s water needs are disproportionately met by groundwater sources, accounting for more than 60 percent of irrigation, 80 percent of rural water supply, and 40 percent of urban water supply. India uses groundwater more than any other country. According to the World Bank, groundwater exploitation in India continues at unsustainable rates, with more than 60 percent of districts threatened. For instance, the state of Punjab, a major rice and wheat supplier in India, is facing an acute groundwater crisis, with the exploitation of about 80 percent of its groundwater wells, which could have serious implications on crop production.

Managing water scarcity in the face of a population explosion and unprecedented global warming has become a priority for the Indian government. Water is a critical lifeline for food security and economic progress, making sustainable water management a necessity.