Top Questions

What is the water infrastructure in India?

Why is a robust water infrastructure important?

What are the major sources of water in India?

What are the major causes of India’s water crisis?

water infrastructure in India, infrastructure for the holistic management of the water resources of India. The infrastructure includes dams, irrigation systems, and reservoirs and ensures the collection, storage, and distribution of water to agriculture, industries, and households. Vital for sustaining economic growth and food security, a robust water infrastructure is the backbone of all agricultural and industrial activity. It also plays a critical role in guaranteeing access to clean drinking water, generating hydroelectric power, controlling floods, and replenishing groundwater. As India’s water resources are stretched thin by a growing population and environmental challenges, the modernization and continued development of the network is critical for sustainable development.

Major sources of water

  • Groundwater: Water existing underground and stored in aquifers is referred to as groundwater. Close to 40 percent of usable water in India comes from the ground. Groundwater irrigation is the source for more than 60 percent of the total irrigated area in India, and groundwater supplies more than 80 percent of rural drinking water.
  • Surface water: Water in rivers, lakes, wetlands, and reservoirs is surface water. It accounts for more than 60 percent of India’s usable water and is primarily used for agricultural and industrial activities. Water in such rivers as the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Barak account for 60 percent of the total surface water in India, owing to high precipitation in their catchment areas. In the southern parts of the country much of the surface water comes from the Krishna and the Godavari rivers.
  • Rainwater: India receives about 4,000 billion cubic meters in rainfall annually. But only a small portion is usable, with most of it replenishing groundwater and surface-water sources. A small amount is collected and used through rainwater harvesting systems.
  • Glaciers: Located among the snow-capped mountains of the vast Himalayas, glaciers are an important source of water in India. For rivers originating in the cold peaks of the Himalayas—such as the Ganges, the Indus, and the Brahmaputra—glacial melt accounts for 30–50 percent of annual flow.

Historical background

India has a long history of water conservation and management dating to the intricate subterranean drainage system of the Indus valley civilization (2500–1700 bce), one of the most advanced in the ancient world. Empires and kingdoms in medieval India used an extensive network of stepwells and canals for storing water and sustaining economic activity. Recognizing the importance of water as a natural resource, the British colonial government also constructed vast irrigation networks and modern canals.

This evolution continued after India gained independence in 1947. During this time the country faced many water challenges. Millions of lives were lost in frequent droughts and famines. Recurrent crop failures because of unpredictable monsoon rainfall destroyed the livelihoods of farmers and wreaked havoc on agriculture. Despite prioritizing industrial development, the newly independent nation’s industries required a steady water supply, which was not readily available. Access to drinking water, particularly in rural areas, was limited. To address these challenges, starting in the late 1940s the Indian government built multipurpose dams, mega irrigation canals, and vast groundwater networks.

Narmada Bachao Andolan

Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA; “Save Narmada Movement”), founded in 1985, is a social movement opposing the construction of dams around the Narmada River, particularly the Sardar Sarovar Dam. Led by tribal communities, environmentalists, farmers, and human rights activists, it argued that the construction of dams would erase entire villages, displace people, and submerge forests. Although the Sardar Sarovar Dam was inaugurated in 2017, India’s Supreme Court required the government to make several concessions to affected stakeholders based on the NBA’s efforts.

Water storage and distribution infrastructure

Dams

There are more than 5,000 dams in India, including many large ones built as part of multipurpose river projects. Dams are constructed on rivers to regulate the flow of water to provide drinking water, irrigate agricultural fields, control floods, manage river navigation, generate hydroelectricity, and sustain industries. For Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, these massive projects represented the country’s industrial and technological progress. He called dams the “temples of modern India.” Mega projects, however, such as the Tehri and Sardar Sarovar dams, have been criticized for causing substantial ecological damage and destroying livelihoods.

Key Multipurpose River Projects in India
year of inauguration name river states key features
1948 Damodar Valley Project Damodar Jharkhand, West Bengal Flood control, irrigation, electricity generation, industrial water supply
1953 Tungabhadra Project Tungabhadra Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh Flood control, irrigation, electricity generation
1957 Hirakud Dam Mahanadi Odisha Flood control, irrigation, electricity generation
1963 Bhakra Nangal Project Sutlej Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat Flood control, irrigation, electricity generation
1967 Nagarjuna Sagar Project Krishna Telangana, Andhra Pradesh Irrigation, electricity generation
1974 Idukki Dam Periyar Kerala Irrigation, electricity generation
2006 Tehri Dam Project Bhagirathi Uttarakhand Irrigation, electricity generation, watershed management, soil conservation, drinking water supply
2017 Sardar Sarovar Project Narmada Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan Flood control, irrigation, electricity generation
Projected to open 2029 Ken-Betwa River Link Project Ken, Betwa Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh Connect Ken River in Madhya Pradesh to Betwa River in Uttar Pradesh, irrigate drought-affected Bundelkhand region

Reservoirs

Reservoirs are artificial lakes created by damming rivers, primarily to store water. India is home to hundreds of reservoirs, including the Hirakud in Odisha (one of the largest in the world), the Gobind Sagar in Himachal Pradesh, the Nagarjuna Sagar in Telengana, and the Periyar Lake in Kerala. More than just stores of water, reservoirs are lifelines for biodiversity—allowing animal and plant life to thrive—and as tourism hotspots they help grow regional economies.

Irrigation systems

Irrigation is the controlled distribution of water to the soil, mainly for crop growth. A strong irrigation network is key to agriculture development and offsets the challenges posed by insufficient rainfall and unavailability of water. Irrigation systems tap water mainly from the surface and ground. They ensure the year-round availability of multiple crops, protect farmers from entirely depending on erratic rainfall, and strengthen the country’s food security.

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Irrigating a Desert

The Indira Gandhi Canal (1983) is one of the world’s most ambitious irrigation projects. It transformed the parched landscape of the Thar Desert in Rajasthan into fertile, cultivable land. The 400-mile (650-km) canal (the longest in India) also provided drinking water to millions of people.

The main systems of irrigation in India include wells, canals, and tanks, which store and distribute water using various techniques:

  • Surface irrigation: Distribution of water through gravitational flow to the soil and crops. This method often leads to flooding of cultivated land.
  • Sprinkler irrigation: The controlled spraying of water from sprinkler pipes to a cultivated area. This technique is more efficient as excess water is not expended.
  • Subirrigation: Effective in water scarce regions, subirrigation systems pump water from below the soil to plant roots. These systems raise or lower water levels depending on water availability and plant needs.
  • Drip irrigation: Widely regarded as the most efficient irrigation technique, water is applied to plant roots at a very low rate. It allows for the efficient use of water and helps maintain optimal soil moisture levels.

The development of irrigation systems in India remains a priority for the government, which has undertaken several massive irrigation projects, including many multipurpose river development projects. They include the Indira Gandhi Canal (1983, Rajasthan), the Teesta Barrage Project (1990, West Bengal), the Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project (2019, Telangana), and the Polavaram Irrigation Project (ongoing, Andhra Pradesh).

Water scarcity

Although India has abundant water resources and strong infrastructure to manage them, the country is on the verge of a severe water crisis. Rapid population growth has increased demand for water to unsustainable levels. The rise in global temperatures is depleting rivers and melting glaciers at alarming rates. Moreover, the widespread pollution of surface and groundwater sources has made large reserves unusable.

A key factor in India’s water crisis is the depletion of groundwater sources, which are being emptied faster than they can be replenished. Although India has more surface water than groundwater, the country’s water needs are disproportionately met by groundwater sources, accounting for more than 60 percent of irrigation, 80 percent of rural water supply, and 40 percent of urban water supply. India uses groundwater more than any other country. According to the World Bank, groundwater exploitation in India continues at unsustainable rates, with more than 60 percent of districts threatened. For instance, the state of Punjab, a major rice and wheat supplier in India, is facing an acute groundwater crisis, with the exploitation of about 80 percent of its groundwater wells, which could have serious implications on crop production.

Managing water scarcity in the face of a population explosion and unprecedented global warming has become a priority for the Indian government. Water is a critical lifeline for food security and economic progress, making sustainable water management a necessity.

Key Government Initiatives to Tackle Water Scarcity
year initiative objective key features
2012 National Aquifer Mapping and Management program Map aquifers and develop sustainable groundwater management Data-driven management
2014 Namami Gange (“Salutations to River Ganga”) Clean the Ganges River and its tributaries Wastewater treatment, solid-waste management, biodiversity conservation, monitoring and regulating pollution sources
2019 Jal Jeevan Mission (“Water Life Mission”) Provide tap water connections to every rural household Maintenance of water-supply systems, water conservation, awareness generation
2020 Atal Bhujal Yojana (“Groundwater Initiative”) Improve groundwater management through sustainable management Community-led development, awareness generation
2019 Jal Shakti Abhiyan (“Water Power Campaign”) Promote water conservation and water resource management in water-stressed districts Rainwater harvesting, watershed development, afforestation, wastewater treatment and reuse
Andrew Pereira
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Also called:
rainwater collection system or rainwater catchment system

rainwater harvesting system, technology that collects and stores rainwater for human use. Rainwater harvesting systems range from simple rain barrels to more elaborate structures with pumps, tanks, and purification systems. The nonpotable water can be used to irrigate landscaping, flush toilets, wash cars, or launder clothes, and it can even be purified for human consumption. With water scarcity a pressing problem for many densely populated regions, rainwater harvesting systems can supply households and businesses with water for use in dry seasons and lessen the demand on municipal systems.

Given that rainfall is sporadic and that only a small proportion of global precipitation is easily available for human use, rainwater harvesting can be an efficient means of capturing that precious resource. In cities, much of the rain that falls on buildings, roofs, roads, and other hard landscaping does not percolate into the soil and is instead directed into storm sewers for disposal. Impermeable surfaces cause urban flooding in many areas and generate contaminated unusable water that is directed away from potable water resources. During dry months, local groundwater can be depleted, and many localities struggle to consistently provide enough potable water to meet demand. Rainwater harvesting for nonpotable functions, such as gardening and washing clothes, significantly reduces both the demanded amount of the total fresh water and the strain on stormwater infrastructure. That saving in the demand and supply of potable fresh water is significant in large cities. Although many localities encourage and even subsidize rain barrels and other rainwater harvesting systems, some areas, particularly those in the southwestern United States, view rainwater harvesting as a water rights issue and place restrictions on such collections.

Design recommendations

The simplest rainwater harvesting systems are nonpressurized systems, such as rain barrels, where the pipes run from rain gutters into a tank. Known as “dry systems,” those structures do not hold any water in the pipes after it stops raining and do not create breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other insects. “Wet systems” are necessary when the pipes cannot be configured to run directly into the tanks. In places where the tanks are located some distance away from the collection surfaces or where there are a series of tanks to serve a number of buildings, pipes from the gutter go underground and then up through a riser into the tank. Such systems are often pressurized so that the long runs of pipes do not retain stagnant water.

Well-designed rainwater harvesting systems ensure that the pipes and all other openings are insect-proof, especially in wet systems. Additionally, wire mesh screen covers on all tank inlets can help prevent debris from entering the tank. Collection surfaces (mainly roofs) should be made of nontoxic materials, particularly avoiding lead-based paints and membranes, and tanks should be made of nontoxic and noncorrosive material. Care should be taken to ensure that the tank outlet taps or draw-off pipes are at least 10 cm (4 inches) above the tank floor to avoid drawing out any sludge that may have collected in the water supply. Although some systems have a sump pump and washout pipe to remove sludge, regular cleaning of the inside surfaces of the tank is recommended for all systems.

Additionally, catchments should be kept clean of accumulations of dirt, moss, lichens, and other debris. Trees branches that overhang those catchment surfaces should be cut back. Regular cleaning of gutters, tank inlets, and screens and annual tank inspection are necessary for proper functioning. Ideally, the water should be tested periodically to monitor its quality.

Quality

Rainwater mixes with both soluble and insoluble materials from the surfaces on which it lands and collects dust and pollutants as it flows down through the atmosphere. Contaminants may be plants, fungi, and other organic materials, as well as inorganic substances such as dissolved minerals, metals, chemicals, or water-soluble paints. Although collected rainwater does not need a high degree of purity for garden or agricultural applications, rainwater collected from unclean surface runoffs is not suitable for drinking or cooking. Separation of the first flush of rainwater from the roof, gutters, and other collection surfaces can improve water quality in the rainwater storage tank.

If collected rainwater is intended for household uses, it must first be purified. Flocculation, settlement, and biofilm skimming can be used to remove bacteria, organic material, and chemicals that form films on surfaces or settle to the bottom of the tanks as sludge. A liquid alum solution can also be added to the incoming raw water to bind fine suspended particles to form larger particles that can be removed by settling and filtration. That removes objectionable colour, turbidity (cloudiness), and aluminum from the drinking water. Prefiltered water may then undergo solar water disinfection or be treated with chlorine or other chemicals to kill infectious agents if the supply is intended for potable uses. Other chemicals used for water purification are potassium permanganate, calcium hydroxide, and fluoride.

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