19th-century Norwegian literature
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- Norwegian literature
19th-century Norwegian literature, the body of written works produced in the Norwegian language between 1814, when Norway separated from Denmark, and about 1900.
For an overview of Norwegian literature from the 16th century to the present, see Norwegian literature.
The Age of Wergeland
After the signing of a new constitution in 1814, an exciting and difficult age began for Norway: an opportunity seemed to be offered to develop an independent Norwegian culture and way of life, but there were deep differences of opinion as to how this could best be achieved. Johan Sebastien Cammermeyer Welhaven was the chief representative of those who insisted that the existing Danish element in the culture should not be neglected. Henrik Wergeland was a spokesman for those whose nationalistic pride led them, on the other hand, to demand a complete break with Denmark. Welhaven stood for a coolly intellectual approach, for restraint and control, and for conscious artistry, as his own sonnet cycle Norges dæmring (1834; “The Dawn of Norway”) exemplifies. Wergeland was more passionate and revolutionary, and his enormous epic Skabelsen, mennesket og messias (1830; “Creation, Humanity and Messiah”) typified the spirit he admired.
Wergeland dominated the age as a poet, orator, and social reformer, and the clash between him and Welhaven and between the two factions associated with them—the “patriots” and the “intelligentsia”—began an ideological conflict that persisted throughout the century.
National Romanticism
The literature of the mid-19th century, known as Norway’s “national Romanticism,” continued to reflect the country’s larger aspirations. The compilation and publication, between 1841 and 1844, of the landmark Norske folkeeventyr (Norwegian Folk Tales) by Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Engebretsen Moe—preceded by Anders Faye’s Norske sagn (1833; “Norwegian Folk Legends”) and followed by Magnus Brostrup Landstad’s Norske folkeviser (1852–53; “Norwegian Folk Ballads”)—indicated a lively interest in the past, as did Peter Andreas Munch’s eight-volume history of the Norwegian people (1857–63). Ivar Aasen was the creative spirit behind the Landsmål movement to establish a literary language based on rural dialects linked with Old Norse. This new written standard came to be known as Nynorsk. Many publications of these years, including earlier works of Henrik Ibsen and Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, turned consciously to Norway’s heroic past and its peasants. To these years belonged also the lyric poetry of Aasmund Olafson Vinje, founder of the periodical Dølen (“The Dalesman”), who adopted Nynorsk as his literary language.
Toward the modern breakthrough
In 1855 Camilla Collett, Wergeland’s sister, published Amtmandens døttre (The District Governor’s Daughters), which, by considering the place of women in society, marked a beginning of a trend that, encouraged by the immensely influential Danish critic Georg Brandes, culminated in the 1870s and ’80s in the realistic “problem” literature of Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, and their contemporaries. Samfundets støtter (1877; The Pillars of Society) was the first of a succession of problem dramas by Ibsen to win him worldwide fame. By then he had already written two verse dramas, Brand (1866) and Peer Gynt (1867), and his long “double drama” Kejser og galilæer (1873; The Emperor and the Galilean). The first substantial problem drama by Bjørnson was En fallit (1875; The Bankrupt). Although never the world figure that Ibsen became, Bjørnson was a leading personality of his age in Norway as a novelist, dramatist, and lyric poet and in public affairs.
The novelists Jonas Lie and Alexander Lange Kielland, together with Ibsen and Bjørnson, were the major figures of modern Norwegian literature and were responsible for a remarkably large body of important work between 1870 and 1884, as the following titles illustrate: Ibsen’s works Et dukkehjem (A Doll’s House), Gengangere (Ghosts), En folkefiende (An Enemy of the People), and Vildanden (The Wild Duck); Bjørnson’s dramas Det ny system (The New System), En handske (A Gauntlet), and Over ævne (Beyond Human Power I) and his novel Det flager i byen og på havnen (The Heritage of the Kurts); Lie’s novels Gaa paa! (“Go Ahead!”), Livsslaven (“The Life Convict”; Eng. trans. One of Life’s Slaves), and Familjen paa Gilje (The Family at Gilje); and Kielland’s Skipper Worse), Gift (“Poison”), and Fortuna (“Fortune”; Eng. trans. Professor Lovdahl). The foremost stylist of his age, Kielland was an elegant, witty novelist with a strong social conscience and an active reforming zeal stemming from an admiration for English philosopher John Stuart Mill.
The literature of the 1870s emphasized individual development and expression in keeping with the optimistic attitude of the times to social change and improvement. In the following decade, growing skepticism and disillusionment made writers more bitter in their attacks on “established” social institutions. The publication of Fra Kristiania-Bohêmen (“From the Christiania Bohemia”) in 1885 by Hans Henrik Jæger created, by its seeming advocacy of sexual license, a public scandal. The most extreme exponent of naturalism was Amalie Skram, especially in her four-volume novel Hellemyrsfolket (1887–98; “The People of Hellemyr”). Arne Evensen Garborg—a poet, novelist, dramatist, and critic—was a superb writer whose work reflected successive movements of Romanticism, realism, naturalism, and Neoromanticism. His wider reputation was first established with a novel, Bondestudentar (1883; “Peasant Students”), but perhaps his greatest achievement was the poem cycle Haugtussa (1895).