ʿAbbasid caliphate

ʿAbbasid caliphate, second of the two great dynasties of the Muslim empire of the caliphate. It overthrew the Umayyad caliphate in 750 ce and reigned as the Abbasid caliphate until it was destroyed by the Mongol invasion in 1258.

The name is derived from that of the uncle of the Prophet Muhammad, al-ʿAbbās (died c. 653) of the Hashemite clan of the Quraysh tribe in Mecca. From about 718, members of his family worked to gain control of the empire from the Umayyads and, by skillful propaganda, won much support, especially from Shiʿi Arabs and Persians in Khorāsān. Open revolt in 747, under the leadership of Abū Muslim, led to the defeat of Marwān II, the last Umayyad caliph, at the Battle of the Great Zab River (750) in Mesopotamia and to the proclamation of the first Abbasid caliph, Abū al-ʿAbbās al-Saffāḥ.

Under the Abbasids the caliphate entered a new phase. Instead of focusing, as the Umayyads had done, on the West—on North Africa, the Mediterranean, and southern Europe—the caliphate now turned eastward. The capital was moved to the new city of Baghdad, and events in Persia and Transoxania were closely watched. For the first time, the caliphate was not coterminous with Islam. In Egypt, North Africa, Spain, and elsewhere, local dynasties claimed caliphal status. With the rise of the Abbasids, the base for influence in the empire became international, emphasizing membership in the community of believers rather than Arab nationality. Since much support for the Abbasids came from Persian converts, it was natural for the Abbasids to take over much of the Persian (Sasanian) tradition of government. Support by pious Muslims likewise led the Abbasids to acknowledge publicly the embryonic Islamic law and to profess to base their rule on the religion of Islam.

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Between 750 and 833 the Abbasids raised the prestige and power of the empire, promoting commerce, industry, arts, and science, particularly during the reigns of al-Manṣūr, Hārūn al-Rashīd, and al-Maʾmūn. Their temporal power, however, began to decline when al-Muʿtaṣim introduced non-Muslim Berber, Slav, and especially Turkish mercenary forces into his personal army. Although these troops were converted to Islam, the base of imperial unity through religion was gone, and some of the new army officers quickly learned to control the caliphate through assassination of any caliph who would not accede to their demands.

The power of the army officers had already weakened through internal rivalries when the Iranian Būyids entered Baghdad in 945, demanding of al-Mustakfī (944–946) that they be recognized as the sole rulers of the territory they controlled. This event initiated a century-long period in which much of the empire was ruled by local dynasties. In 1055 the Abbasids were overpowered by the Seljuqs, who took what temporal power may have been left to the caliph but respected his position as the titular leader, restoring the authority of the caliphate, especially during the reigns of al-Mustarshid (1118–35), al-Muqtafī, and al-Nāṣir. Soon after, in 1258, the dynasty fell during a Mongol siege of Baghdad.