Adderall
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Adderall, drug with stimulatory effects on the central nervous system that is prescribed for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. Adderall is the trade name for a drug known as mixed amphetamine salts, which is a combination of two forms of amphetamine and two forms of dextroamphetamine. The mixture produces an increase in wakefulness, attention, and resistance to fatigue while also reducing restlessness and impulsiveness. Owing to its stimulant effects, however, Adderall is also prone to misuse, often being taken to enhance athletic performance or cognition or to produce euphoria. Increases in the diagnosis of ADHD and prescription of Adderall have contributed to shortages of the drug in the United States.
History and development
Amphetamine was first synthesized in the 1880s, though its effects were not well understood at the time. In the late 1920s American chemist and pharmacologist Gordon Alles resynthesized the substance, as amphetamine sulfate, later marketed under the name Benzedrine, and reportedly experimented with it on himself, leading to his discovery of its physiological effects. Benzedrine was issued by the U.S. government to soldiers who fought in World War II to increase vigilance and energy. In the latter part of the 20th century, amphetamines became popular for a variety of purposes, including for the treatment of depression and to reduce appetite and encourage weight loss.
In the 1960s and ’70s increasing fear over the social and health ramifications of amphetamine abuse led to stricter regulation of the drug, resulting in a steep decline in the popularity of amphetamine-based drugs, including the weight loss drug Obertol. In the 1990s, however, Obertol was reformulated and introduced to treat ADHD. Because of its potency and long-lasting effects, the drug quickly became a common medication for ADHD, competing with Ritalin, which was the leading treatment at the time.
Mechanism of action and side effects
Adderall was originally sold as an instant-release formulation, but in 2002 an extended-release alternative, known as Adderall XR, became available. The extended-release formulation produces effects that last between 10 and 12 hours, whereas the instant-release formulation’s effects last from about 4 to 8 hours. In both forms, Adderall functions by simulating the effects of naturally occurring chemicals in the brain, most notably the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine. Dopamine activates the brain’s reward center, allowing for longer periods of concentration, while norepinephrine is connected to the “fight-or-flight” response and acts to increase wakefulness and focus.
Adderall is generally considered safe when taken as prescribed by a physician. At high doses, indicating intoxication, certain physical and psychological effects, including increased blood pressure and heart rate, are common, and severe liver damage can occur. The greatest dangers presented by the drug are associated with its nonmedical use and potential for addiction, since individuals consuming Adderall in ways other than prescribed tend to take relatively high doses.
Illicit use
Throughout the 2000s and 2010s in the United States, Adderall became a popular “study drug,” misused by high-school and college students to manage intensive workloads and to enable long study and work sessions. The increase in its use in this fashion occurred simultaneously with the trend in increasing ADHD diagnoses, which began in the mid-1990s and continued into the 2020s. The diagnosis of ADHD and the prescription of Adderall increased markedly in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic.
