Sanctuaries, cultic objects, and religious practices and institutions

The sanctuaries, sometimes carved in the rock on high places, consisted of a ḥaram, a sacred open-air enclosure, accessible only to unarmed and ritually clean people in ritual clothes. There the baetyl, a “raised stone,” or a statue of the god, was worshipped. The Nabataeans originally represented their gods as baetyls on a podium, but later they gave them a human appearance.

Of the Nabataean high places that are carved from the rock, the best-known overlooks the site of Petra. On a summit measuring roughly 215 by 65 feet (65 by 20 metres) are carved a large triclinium for ritual meals, a podium with baetyls, a sacrificial altar, and a basin. The stone-built temples of the Nabataeans and South Arabians were more-elaborate structures, consisting of a rectangular walled enclosure, near one end of which was a stone canopy or a closed cella or both, which contained the altar for sacrifices or the idol of the god. Other rooms and a cistern might be added. The Kaaba in Mecca, which became the sacred shrine of the Muslims, has a similar structure: it is a closed cella (which was full of idols in pre-Islamic times) in a walled enclosure, with a well. A baetyl, the Black Stone, is inserted in the wall of the Kaaba; it is veiled by a cloth cover (the kiswah), reminiscent of the leather cover of the Ark of the Covenant. Numerous South Arabian temples have been surveyed. The temple of Almaqah in Maʾrib had an unusual shape—an ellipse with a major axis about 345 feet long, with a strong wall about 28 feet high, built of fine limestone ashlars. A small temple, in front of which were eight standing pillars, comprises a gallery supported by interior pillars around a rectangular court; it served as a peristyle to the main temple, in the wall of which it was inserted.

To the gods were offered, on appropriate altars, sacrifices of slaughtered animals, libations and fumigations of aromatics, votive objects, or persons dedicated to serve in the temple. A ritual slaughter of enemies in gratitude for a military victory is mentioned at the rock sanctuary of the sun goddess of Ḥimyar. Normally, the dedicator of a sacrifice performed the slaughtering of the animal.

In addition to the northwestern Arabian kāhin, “soothsayer,” several kinds of priests and temple officials appear in Lihyanite, Nabataean, and South Arabian inscriptions, but their respective functions are not clear. North Arabian queens and ancient Qatabānian rulers bore priestly titles. In Sabaʾ some priests (rshw) of ʿAthtar, recruited on a hereditary basis from three clans, took office in turn for seven years as eponyms (kabir) in charge of the collection of the tithe and of the rites aimed at obtaining rain.

The priests interpreted the oracles, which, throughout Arabia, were mostly obtained by cleromancy (istiqsām): the answer (positive, negative, expectative, and so on) to a question asked of the god was obtained by drawing lots from a batch of marked arrows or sticks. Many Sabaean texts mention the oracles, but only one inscription mentions arrows in connection with them. A bunch of sticks possibly used for that purpose was found in 1987 in a Sabaean temple. Among the many other forms of divination known from pre-Islamic Arabia, only oneiromancy, or divination by means of dreams (possibly after incubation in the temple), is well attested in Sabaean texts.

Throughout pre-Islamic Arabia, “truces of God” allowed people to attend in security the yearly pilgrimages to important shrines. The rites included purification and the wearing of ritual clothing, sexual abstinence, abstention from shedding blood, and circuits performed (ṭawāf, dawār) around the sacred object; they were concluded by the slaughter of animals, which were eaten in collective feasts. Today such practices still form the core of the Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj). The classical, Nabataean, Lihyanite, and Sabaean sources mention pilgrimages.

In South Arabia pilgrims were entertained in the temples on the proceeds of the tithe. The sanctuary of Jabal al-Lawdh, in al-Jawf of northern Yemen, consisted of two temples: the first, at the foot of the mountain, was connected to another one near the summit, some 3,000 feet higher up, by a 3.7-mile processional way. Open courtyards contained many rows of low masonry benches, more than 30 feet long, which were probably used for the ritual meals mentioned in the texts found at the site. Among the Nabataeans, sacral brotherhoods (mrzḥ; “thiasoi”) held ritual meals in the temples or in burial rooms of the dead.

The sovereigns of Sabaʾ performed a rite called “hunting the game of ʿAthtar and the game of Kurūm.” The gazelle was the symbol animal of ʿAthtar, and Kurūm is now known to be a hypostasis or a consort of ʿAthtar (this explains the name ʿAtarqurumā of an idol in Dūmat al-Jandal, mentioned above). This rite was aimed at obtaining rain, and that is also the aim of a formal tribal ibex hunt still performed today in Ḥaḍramawt. Istisqāʾ, a collective rogation for rain with magical rites, in times of acute drought, is mentioned by the Islamic tradition and in two Sabaean texts. The rite is still part of the Islamic ritual.

South Arabian texts confessing offenses against ritual cleanliness, along with data from classical sources and the Muslim tradition on pre-Islamic customs, contribute to outline an ancient Arabian code of ritual cleanliness similar to that of Leviticus and of Muslim jurisprudence, although some Islamologists, unaware of the pre-Islamic Arabian epigraphic material, have attributed the Muslim code on ritual cleanliness (ṭahārah) to a Jewish influence on early Islam in Medina.

The dead were buried under a mound of stones or in burial chambers carved from the rock. The Ṣafaite Bedouin used to add a stone, possibly bearing a written expression of grief, to the heap marking the grave of a friend or relative. Some excavated heaps have yielded dozens of such texts. An ancient Arab custom was to tie the mount of a dead warrior to the tomb of its master and leave it to die there. There is probably no relationship between this custom and the discovery, in 1985 in Ḥaḍramawt, of tombs of ritually beheaded kneeling camels. Collective burial chambers were carved in the rock underground or from cliffs in various parts of Arabia. Lihyanite, Nabataean, and South Arabian inscriptions may mark the entrance, name the occupants and their respective share of ownership, and threaten any intruder or usurper. Surgically prepared mummies were discovered for the first time in 1983 in North Yemen, in burial chambers carved in a cliff. In the Nabataean capital, Petra, and in Madāʾin Ṣaliḥ, the necropolis of their city of al-Ḥijr, in the Hejaz, many dozens of rock burial chambers show a great variety of elaborate facades carved in high relief in the red sandstone.