Welsh-speaking Congregational churches did not join the United Reformed Church but organized separately in the Union of Welsh Independents. These churches grew up originally in the countryside but moved successfully to the developing industrial valleys in the 19th century. The churches have been strong centres of distinctively Welsh culture, and their ministers have often been national leaders. Their influence diminished in the 20th century as the population moved away from old centres of strength, but Welsh Congregationalists maintain their tradition of preaching, poetry, and hymnody.

Congregationalism in Scotland has been less prominent, and in Ireland it is almost nonexistent. In Scotland it arose in the 19th century out of dissatisfaction with the lack of missionary zeal of the Church of Scotland and soon united with a similar group called the Evangelical Union. Numerically small, it has made a distinctively liberal contribution to Scottish life and has produced many noteworthy figures, including the missionaries David Livingstone and Robert Moffat, the writer George Macdonald, and the theologian Peter Taylor Forsyth.

United States

Congregationalism achieved its greatest influence and numerical strength in the United States, where it helped to determine the character of the nation as a result of the New England experiment, which established communities based on Congregational religious principles. The New England settlement was rooted in the Separatism of Plymouth colony and in the Puritanism of Massachusetts Bay. The first Separatists arrived on the Mayflower in 1620 from the exiled church at Leiden, Holland. The Puritans, unlike the Separatists, wished to reform the Church of England rather than to leave it. They left the country, however, to build a “godly commonwealth” that would be an example of what a new England, truly reformed according to the Word of God, might be. They were closer in spirit to the English Presbyterians than to the Separatists, but there was enough affinity between the two groups to enable them to live together in comparative harmony and to reject more-radical leaders such as Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. In 1648 the two groups united to produce the Cambridge Platform, a declaration of faith that accepted the theological position of the strongly Calvinistic Westminster Confession (1647) but maintained a Congregational polity. (The English Congregationalists produced a similar statement, the Savoy Declaration, in 1658.)

The original experiment demanded an intensely intellectual and spiritual commitment that made the New England colony unique. As the community matured and the second and third generations grew up, it became difficult to maintain the original high standards without suffering loss of membership. The result was the Half-Way Covenant of 1662, which allowed those who had been baptized but had not publicly professed a conversion experience to be church members without voting rights or admission to Communion.

The community was keenly interested in education from the outset, and one of its earliest acts was to start a college to provide a succession of learned ministers for its churches. Thus was founded Harvard College (1636), the first of a long line of colleges begun under Congregational auspices in America.

The American community, like the English, endured a gradual loss of religious fervour in the late 17th century, but new life came with the 18th-century Great Awakening, a widespread revival movement that began in 1734 under the influence of Jonathan Edwards. The Awakening, however, revealed the differences emerging between two wings of Congregationalism. On one side were those who maintained the Calvinist tradition, creatively restated by Edwards and his followers, with a greater emphasis on the affective elements in religion. On the other was a rapidly growing Unitarianism, which paralleled a similar movement in England. With the exception of the churches in Connecticut, where Congregationalism had taken root and remained the established church into the 19th century, many of the oldest Congregational churches became Unitarian by the early 19th century, including 12 of the 14 in Boston.

Despite the loss to Unitarianism, Congregationalism remained vigorous in the 19th century, and it was active in the westward expansion of the nation. The Presbyterians and Congregationalists, numerous in the Middle Atlantic states and New England, respectively, adopted a Plan of Union in 1801 for joint missionary activity in the western territories. The arrangement lasted for nearly half a century but broke down partly because of Congregationalism’s growing liberalism. The characteristic theologian of this period, Horace Bushnell, challenged the traditional substitutionary view of the Atonement (that Christ’s suffering and death atoned for man’s sins) and questioned the necessity of the classical conversion experience in his well-known book Christian Nurture (1847). Influential preachers such as Henry Ward Beecher and Washington Gladden popularized similar ideas. The so-called Kansas City Creed of 1913 summed up the liberalism of this period, which represented a radical break with the Calvinist past.

American Congregationalists have been active missionaries at home and abroad. A national Congregational organization was formed in 1871, and powerful Boards for Home Missions and Education were established, through which Northern Congregationalists did a great deal for African American education in the South, where there were virtually no indigenous Congregational churches. They also evangelized in the Middle East and in China before the communist revolution.

Modern American Congregationalism has shown itself singularly ready to unite with other churches. In 1931 the Congregationalists formed an association with the relatively small Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), which was concentrated in the upper South, and in 1957 it formed a more notable union with the Evangelical and Reformed Church, an important community of German Lutheran and Reformed background that claimed the eminent theologians Reinhold Niebuhr and Paul Tillich among its ministers. The new church body is known as the United Church of Christ. A minority of Congregational churches refused to join the union, and these remain separate.

Congregationalism has not become a popular worldwide form of church life, though it is represented in most English-speaking countries. Congregationalists were prominent in the formation of the Church of South India in 1947, and they have also become part of the United Church of Canada and of the Uniting Church in Australia. Through the International Congregational Council, united with the Reformed Alliance since 1970, they have had fraternal ties with churches of similar outlook in Europe, notably the Remonstrant Brotherhood of Holland and the Swedish Mission Covenant Church.