Institutions and practices
- Related Topics:
- lud
- kalma
- Leib-olmai
- Doh
- Louhi
Cult authorities
The male head of the family has long had a central role in leading different home and family cults. In the lud sanctuaries of the Udmurt, for example, worship was performed by members of the family; the head of the family had the responsibility of organizing the cult and the task was hereditary. Women also were able to supervise certain minor home rituals—such as those performed in connection with cattle breeding (offerings to the guardian spirit of the cattle shed and the forest). In hunting and nomadic cultures, the head man (e.g., the oldest of the hunting party or the reindeer chief) supervised the rites. The official authorities of the rites (i.e., the religious specialists) among the Finno-Ugric peoples were of the following types: shamans (among the Nenets and the Sami); seers (the counterparts of the shaman among southern peoples); sacrificing priests (the leaders of the annual rites, especially in cattle-breeding cultures and agricultural communities); guardians of the sanctuary (the protectors of holy groves, buildings, and other places and the controller of the rites); professional weeping women (the “vocalists,” especially of the cult of the dead but also of weddings, who were the verbal expressers of the content of the ritual); and the masters of ceremonies at weddings. The shaman had many and various tasks in Arctic regions, but farther south particular tasks were undertaken by various cult authorities: the seer (healing and counseling) and the weeping woman, or psychopomp (i.e., “conductor of souls”), guiding the soul to the other world. The two last-mentioned are verbal ecstatics; the task of the seer, especially in solving critical problems, was of the utmost importance. The task of the sacrificing priest was more of a routine affair, but among the Volga Finns and the Permians for example, the long and skillful prayers as well as the complex ceremonies performed by the priests required great professional competence.
Cult centres
The home sanctuary of the Udmurt is a kuala, a primitive log cabin near the dwelling house. In a corner at one end of the kuala is a shelf, at the height of a man, on which there are branches of deciduous trees and conifers, and on top of them a voršud (a box with a lid). A weekly offering is made here. Another Udmurt sanctuary is the lud—a fenced-off area in an isolated place in the forest. In the middle is a primitive table for sacrificial gifts. In the lud regular animal sacrifices are offered and occasional crisis rites performed (sacrifices to dispel accidents or disease). The cult group in both kuala and lud is the family; the office of the sacrificing priest of the lud is hereditary, and in the principal house of the family there is a great kuala, which is visited three times a year in addition to the offerings made in the small kuala at home. The small kuala is built on a foundation of earth and ashes brought from the big kuala. The system is exogamous—the woman visiting the kuala of her own father and not that of her husband’s father. The Udmurt also have large groves near a spring or a brook in the vicinity of a village, where common sacrifices for the whole village are made. There are, in addition, larger sacrificing groups, which may include dozens of villages and which meet every third year for a festival lasting many weeks. The Volga Finns also have fenced-in keremet groves for the family cult and places of worship common to the whole village. Evidence also exists concerning sacrificial groves among the Baltic Finns and from group villages in Karelia and Ingria. In the thinly populated parts of Finland, the family cult took place either at cup stones (sacrifice stones with shallow cuplike depressions) or at holy trees. Among the nomadic Sami (those involved in reindeer herding and fishing) seita (“sacrificial stone”) places for worship arose near a reindeer migration route or a good fishing place, and for such a place an outstanding stone generally was chosen. The Ob Ugrians had a kind of “mobile temple” for the wooden idols (normally kept in the corner of the house) that were placed on special sledges.
Cult practices
All the main categories of rites are found among the Finno-Ugric peoples: cyclic or calendric rites (concerning the means of livelihood), rites of passage (the transition of the individual from one status to another), and crisis rites (concerning threats of disaster). The character of these rites varies considerably, depending on ecological factors and cultural contacts. Generally, an agrarian culture produces a cult system that is more stable and formal than that produced by a mobile hunting culture or a nomadic way of life. In the latter, sacrifice rites tend to be more improvised and the cult group smaller. An example of a formal system is the distinction “upward” and “downward” in worship found among the Udmurts and the Cheremis: sacrifices of white animals are made in deciduous groves to the god of the sky and to certain nature gods, the direction of prayer being to the south; sacrifices of black animals are made to the departed and to the guardian spirits of the earth near conifers, the direction of prayer being to the north.
Conclusion
Two phenomena may be consistently observed with regard to the religious customs of the Finno-Ugric peoples. These are the ecological adaptation of religion and the stratification of tradition in connection with acculturation. A number of examples of the former have already been given. As far as acculturation is concerned, it may be said that the “syncretism” it produces does not result in any conflict in the religious field, except perhaps for short periods of adjustment. Old and new elements of different origins are molded into an active system, and choice and adaptation take place according to practical religious need. Christianity and Islam have in many places provided a religious superstructure, but they have not been accepted as such; certain elements from them have been adapted to the depth structure of a primitive religion. The best example of this is the preservation of folk religion in Hungary, Finland, and Estonia, where Christianity, supported by a literate culture, is ancient. Popular belief has become intertwined with the religious tradition because it has always had a function that no Christian practice has replaced. Only mass media and urbanization have jeopardized the ancient belief tradition.
Lauri O. Honko