The Qurʾān and non-Islamic influences

The sources of Islamic mythology are first of all the Qurʾānic revelations. Since, for the Muslims, the Qurʾān is the uncreated word of God (the text revealed to Muhammad is considered an earthly manifestation of the eternal and uncreated original in heaven), it contains every truth, and whatever is said in it has been the object of meditation and explanation through the centuries. Thus, since the 9th century, commentators on the Qurʾān have been by far the most important witnesses for Islamic “mythology.” They wove into their explanations various strands of Persian and ancient oriental lore and relied heavily on Jewish tradition. For example, the Jewish convert Kaʿb al-Aḥbār brought much of the Isrāʾīliyyāt—narratives said to originate from Jewish sources—into Islamic tradition. Later on, the mystics’ commentaries expressed some gnostic (a dualistic viewpoint in which spirit is viewed as good and matter as evil) and Hellenistic concepts, of which the Hellenistic idea of the Perfect Man—personified in Muhammad—was to gain greatest prominence. Commentaries written in the border areas of Islamic countries now and then accepted a few popular traditions from their respective areas; however, the formative period was finished quite early. Traditions about the life and sayings of the Prophet grew larger and larger and are interesting for the study of the adoption of foreign mythological material. A valuable source for Islamic legends are the qiṣaṣ al-anbiyāʾ—stories of the prophets, such as those by Thaʿālibī (born 1035) and Kisāʾī (11th century)—traditions concerning the prophets of yore in which a large number of pre-Islamic and non-Islamic ideas were incorporated.

While the classical mythology of Islam, as far as it can be properly called so, is spread over the whole area of Islam, the miracles and legends around a particular Muslim saint are found chiefly in the area of his special influence (especially where his order is most popular). Even if the names of the saints differ, the legends woven around them are very similar to each other and almost interchangeable. In the area where Persian was read—from Ottoman Turkey to India—the mythological concepts of Ferdowsī’s Shāh-nāmeh are found side by side with the legends taken from ʿAṭṭār’s and Rūmī’s works.

The mystics

From the 11th century onward, the biographies of the mystics often show interesting migrations of legendary motifs from one culture to another. For the Persian-speaking countries, the Taẓkerat ol-Owlīyāʾ (“Memoirs of the Saints”) of Farīd al-Dīn ʿAṭṭār (died c. 1220) has become the storehouse of legendary material about the early Sufi mystics. ʿAṭṭār’s Persian epics (especially his Manṭeq al-ṭayr, The Conference of the Birds) also contain much material that was used by almost every writer after him. The Mas̄navī-yi Maʿnavī (“Spiritual Couplets”; a sort of poetic encyclopaedia of mystical thought in 26,000 couplets) of Rūmī (died 1273) is another important source for legends of saints and prophets. For the Iranian worldview, Ferdowsī’s (died c. 1020) Shāh-nāmeh (“Book of Kings”) gave a poetical account of the mythology of old Iran, and its heroes became models for many poets and writers. The whole mythological and legendary heritage is condensed in allusions found in lyrical and panegyrical poetry. The 12th-century Persian poet Khāqānī’s works, qaṣīdahs (“odes”), are typical. The close connection of the Sufi orders with the artisans’ lodges and guilds was instrumental in the dissemination of legendary material, especially about the alleged founder, or patron, of the guild (such as Ḥallāj as patron of cotton carders and Idrīs as patron of the tailors).

Muslim historians interested in world history often began their works with mythological tales; Central Asian traditions were added in Iran during the Il-Khanid period (1256–1335 ce). Folk poetry, in the different languages spoken by Muslims, provides a popular representation of traditional material, be it in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, the Indian and Pakistani languages (Urdu/Hindi, Bengali, Sindhi, Punjabi, Balochi, etc.), or the Afro-Asiatic languages. In all of them allusions to myth and legend are found down to the level of riddles and lullabies. Typical of the legendary tradition of the Shiʿah are the taʿziyas (passion plays) in Iran, commemorating the death of al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī in the Battle of Karbalāʾ (680), and the mars̄īyehs (threnodies or elegies for the dead), which form an important branch of the Urdu poetry of India and Pakistan. A proper study of the distribution of most aspects of mythology in the various Muslim areas has not been undertaken, since much of the popular material is rarely available in print or is written in less-known languages—a good example is the extremely rich collections of legends and popular pious works in the Sindhi language.

Cosmogony and eschatology

The world was created out of nothing by God’s word kun (“Be”). After the creation of the angelic beings from light, Adam was formed from clay and destined to be God’s vicegerent, khalīfah. All the angels obeyed God’s order to prostrate themselves before Adam, except Iblīs (Satan), who refused and was cursed; due to Iblīs’s instigation Adam ate the forbidden fruit (or grain) and was driven out of paradise. Questions of original sin or of Eve’s role do not arise in the Muslim version of creation. Satan’s disobedience has been explained by the mystics as actually an expression of his obedience to the divine will that does not allow worship of any but the Lord and that conflicted with the order that Satan prostrate himself before Adam.

Before the creation, God addressed the posterity of Adam: “Am I not your Lord” (a-lastu bi-rabbikum), and they answered “Yes” (Qurʾān 7:172). This pre-eternal covenant is the favourite topic of mystical poetry, especially in the Persian-speaking areas for expressing pre-eternal love between God and man, or the unchangeable fate that was accepted that very day, the Yesterday as contrasted to the Tomorrow of resurrection. Angels and jinn (genies) are living powers that become visible in human life; they are accepted as fully real.

Every destiny is written on the “well-preserved tablet,” and now “the pen has dried up”; a change in destiny is not possible. Later mystics have relied on an extra-Qurʾānic revelation in which God attests, “I was a hidden treasure,” and they have seen the reason for creation in God’s yearning to be known and loved. For them, creation is the projection of divine names and qualities onto the world of matter.

The central event of Islam is death and resurrection. The dead will be questioned by two terrible angels (that is why the profession of faith is recited to the dying); only the souls of martyrs go straight to heaven, where they remain in the crops of green birds around the divine throne (green is always connected with heavenly bliss). The end of the world will be announced by the coming of the mahdī (literally, “the directed or guided one”)—a messianic figure who will appear in the last days and is not found in the Qurʾān but developed out of Shiʿi speculations and is sometimes identified with Jesus. The mahdī will slay the Dajjāl, the one-eyed evil spirit, and combat the dangerous enemies, Yājūj and Mājūj, who will come from the north of the earth. The trumpet of Isrāfīl, one of the four archangels, will awaken the dead for the day of resurrection, which is many thousands of years long and the name of which has come to designate a state of complete confusion and turmoil.

The eschatological inventory as described in the Qurʾān was elaborated by the commentators: the scales on which the books or deeds are weighed (an old Egyptian idea), the book in which the two recording angels have noted down mortal deeds, and the narrow bridge that is said to be sharper than a sword and thinner than a hair and leads over hell (an Iranian idea). The dreadful angels of hell and the horrors of that place are as thoroughly described by theologians as the pleasures of paradise, with its waters and gardens and the houris who are permanent virgins. Pious tradition promises space in heavenly mansions, filled with everything beautiful, to those who repeat certain prayer formulas a certain number of times, or for similar rewarding deeds, whereas the mystic longs not “for houris some thousand years old” but for the vision of God, who will be visible like the full moon. In the concept of the sidrah tree as the noblest place in paradise, a remnant may be found of the old tree of life. God’s throne is on the waters (Qurʾān 11:9) in the highest world, surrounded by worshipping angels. The created world, the earth, is surrounded by the mountain Qāf and enclosed by two oceans that are separated by a barrier. Mecca is the navel of the earth, created 2,000 years before everything else, and the deluge did not reach to proto-Kaʿbah. Often the world is conceived as a succession of seven heavens and seven earths, and a popular tradition says that the earth is on water, on a rock, on the back of a bull, on a kamkam (meaning unknown), on a fish, on water, on wind, on the veil of darkness—hence the Persian expression az māh tā māhī, “from the moon to the fish”; i.e., throughout the whole world.