Expansion and declaration of a caliphate

From its stronghold in Al-Raqqah, ISIL expanded outward, launching successful offensives in both Syria and Iraq. After Iraqi government forces attempted to suppress protests in the predominantly Sunni cities of Fallujah and Al-Ramādī, ISIL joined local militias in fighting back and took control of those cities in January 2014. The capture proved a propaganda boon for ISIL, which flaunted its “liberation” of those cities to aggrieved Sunnis across western Iraq. ISIL fighters then pushed north, shocking government troops and taking Mosul—Iraq’s second largest city—without resistance in June. As ISIL advanced, it used social media to disseminate videos and images that appeared to show ISIL gunmen executing large numbers of captured Iraqi soldiers.

In late June the group released an audio message declaring a caliphate in the territory controlled by ISIL, with Baghdadi as the caliph. In accordance with that declaration, the group began referring to itself simply as “the Islamic State.” The group’s claims to universal leadership of the Muslim community were widely rejected by other Muslim groups.

ISIL began to assume some governmental functions in the areas under its control, such as collecting taxes and organizing basic services. Policing, education, and health care were carried out in accordance with its hard-line interpretation of Islamic law. Yet witness accounts and the group’s own propaganda indicated that ISIL continued to rely on extreme violence against civilians to enforce its edicts and to ensure the compliance of the populace: public executions, amputations, and lashings were routine, and the corpses of the executed were often displayed to the public as a warning against disobedience. There were also widespread reports of sexual violence carried out by ISIL, including forced marriages and sex slavery.

ISIL’s quick advances in Iraq alarmed the international community and set off a political crisis in Baghdad that ultimately led to the toppling of Maliki. Calls for international intervention increased, and on August 8 the United States launched air strikes in Iraq to prevent ISIL from advancing into the autonomous Kurdish region of Iraq. The strikes did halt ISIL’s advance but did not dislodge it from territory in Iraq where it had become entrenched.

ISIL continued to produce gruesome and provocative propaganda. A series of videos in August and September showed ISIL fighters beheading Western journalists and an aid worker in retaliation for the U.S. air strikes. Those images deepened fears that ISIL posed a global threat. ISIL demanded ransom payments and other concessions from foreign governments in exchange for the return of hostages, and it executed the hostages if the governments refused. Most of the hostages were journalists and aid workers, but in late December 2014 the group captured a Jordanian pilot after his fighter jet crashed during a mission against ISIL in Syria. News of the pilot’s capture met with consternation in Jordan, where a large proportion of the public had opposed the country’s participation in the anti-ISIL coalition. Support for military action surged in February 2015, however, after an ISIL video showed the pilot being burned to death by his captors.

Furthermore, once ISIL took control of territory in Iraq and Syria, it engaged in a campaign of cultural cleansing, destroying Shiʿi and Christian places of worship, as well as Sunni shrines that it deemed idolatrous, such as the Mosque of the Prophet Jonah in Mosul. In early 2015 it turned its attention to the region’s ancient heritage. Videos were released showing members of ISIL destroying Assyrian artifacts in the Mosul museum and demolishing ruins at Nimrūd and Hatra in Iraq. In May 2015 ISIL took control of Palmyra, a city in the eastern Syrian desert that was the site of one of the Middle East’s largest collections of Greco-Roman ruins. By August ISIL fighters had begun demolishing monuments there.

Meanwhile, in mid-September 2014 ISIL launched an offensive into northern Syria in an attempt to gain control of the Kurdish areas on the Syria-Turkey border. Several months of heavy fighting between Kurdish militias and ISIL ensued, and tens of thousands of refugees fled into Turkey. Aided by air strikes and weapons deliveries from the international anti-ISIL coalition, Kurdish militias appeared to gain the upper hand in early 2015.

In late September 2014, meanwhile, the United States, leading an international coalition that included Jordan, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Saudi Arabia, expanded its air campaign to include targets in Syria. Russia undertook its own intervention in the Syrian Civil War in September 2015, launching a campaign of air strikes in support of the Assad regime over the objections of the U.S.-led coalition conducting air strikes against ISIL. Some of Russia’s air strikes hit ISIL, but the majority appeared to focus on other rebel groups in direct conflict with Assad’s forces.

The international and local forces were able to contain ISIL and begin to push it back. ISIL reached its peak by early 2015, controlling over 41,000 square miles in Iraq and Syria and ruling over at least eight million people, but by mid-2015 the group had begun losing ground.