Since the time of Martin Bucer and John Calvin the Reformed movement has had leaders who were untiring in efforts toward church unity. In the 17th century the Scot John Dury and the Czech John Amos Comenius were notable for their ecumenical efforts. While later Pietism and Evangelicalism divided churches, people were also encouraged to put aside differences for common goals. Mission societies received support and sent missionaries from diverse denominational backgrounds. In the past 150 years Presbyterian and Reformed churches have not only reunited among themselves but also have formed close links with churches of other historical backgrounds. In the United States discussion and the adoption of consensus papers have taken place since 1961 by a Consultation on Church Union that included Reformed, Presbyterian, Congregational, Methodist, Episcopal, and Disciples churches.

The World Council of Churches was organized in 1948. Reformed and Presbyterian churches participate in local and regional councils of churches and interfaith groups. Since the second Vatican Council (1962–65), called by Pope John XXIII, there has been increased dialogue with Roman Catholics. The insights coming through ecumenical and interfaith relationships make for more global, more dynamic, and more relevant teaching and practice in Reformed and Presbyterian churches.

Doctrines

Reformed churches consider themselves to be the Roman Catholic Church reformed. Calvin in his Institutes spoke of the holy Catholic Church as mother of all the godly. Bullinger in the Second Helvetic Confession made it clear that Reformed churches condemn what is contrary to ecumenical creeds. Interpretations of the early Church Fathers and decrees and canons of councils “were not to be despised, but we modestly dissent from them when they are found to set down things differing from, or altogether contrary to, the Scriptures.” Universal articles of Christian faith, such as the doctrines of the Trinity, the humanity and divinity of Christ, and the sin of man and the saving work of Christ, are affirmed in Reformed faith.

Reformed churches share with Lutheran and other Protestant communions the concept of justification by grace through faith as central to the Gospel. The essence of faith is God’s forgiving love coming as a gift through Jesus Christ. As with Lutherans, the true treasure of the church is this good news of the grace of God. Scripture is the authoritative witness of the good news, but, as was stated in the Westminster Confession, “authority thereof is from the inward work of the Holy Spirit, bearing witness by and with the word in our hearts.” Calvin said: “There is no doubt that faith is a light of the Holy Spirit through which our understandings are enlightened and our hearts are confirmed in a sure persuasion.” Such understanding is shared by Lutheran and Reformed Christians.

The church and the sacraments

Calvin tried unsuccessfully to mediate between the Lutherans and Zwinglians, holding that Zwingli had been more concerned to show how Christ was not present than how he was and affirming, with Luther, the real presence of the resurrected Christ in communion. In the 1980s Lutheran and Reformed churches in Europe and the United States came to recognize each other’s ministries of word and sacrament.

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Christianity: Presbyterian and Reformed churches

Both Calvin and Bucer, more than Luther, were concerned to keep the “profane” from receiving communion. This encouraged the development of church discipline, and the use of elders to oversee discipline within the parish became a feature of Reformed church life. In the struggle to maintain that discipline, Calvin’s successor, Theodore Beza, asserted that the presbyterian form of government was ordained by Christ.

Scripture and tradition

Before the Reformation, humanists rejected arguments that appealed to the authority of church tradition. They made the authority of Scripture central in the church. Following them, Reformed Christians insisted that no authority in the church was on a level with Scripture; by Scripture all tradition was to be judged.

Church and state

The position in the Swiss Reformation was that church and state should render reciprocal service yet remain distinct. The church invisible consisted of God’s elect, but the membership of a visible church approximated the population of the corresponding state. Beyond borders national churches kept communion with each other in spite of differences of custom.

Obedience was required of Christians, even to unworthy rulers, unless the ruler commanded disobedience to God. On such occasions, God rather than man must be obeyed. But even then, the private individual should not actively resist the ruler. It was the responsibility of lesser magistrates to bring such rulers into line. Sixteenth-century resistance of Huguenots in France, Protestants in Scotland, and Puritans in England was justified on this basis.

English Puritans asserted that the government of the state should be patterned after their form of government in the church. This teaching was one source of modern constitutional government. Another source in Reformed tradition was the belief that no one person should be trusted with unlimited power, a doctrine James Madison built into the U.S. Constitution.

There has been a constant Reformed hope that the kingdoms of this world may be brought closer to the will of God and that this would result in a better justice for all. This view requires that church people become involved in politics.

The sovereignty of God and double predestination

There has been no argument in Reformed theology about the positive side of the doctrine of predestination concerning the election of those whom God wills to save. Difference of opinion, however, arose over whether God determines who is reprobated. Bullinger did not believe that it was God’s will that “one of these little ones should perish.” He maintained that Christians should always hope for the best for all. Calvin affirmed “double” predestination, meaning that both reprobation and election are within the active will of God. His reason found this appalling but scriptural. To call God, thereby, unjust was to judge One who is the very standard of justice.

In his Institutes Calvin discussed predestination in the context of the love and grace of Jesus Christ. Later theologians expounded predestination more abstractly as an aspect of God’s sovereignty. Arminianism rose in protest to this. The defenders of double predestination thought that Arminianism would cut the nerve of the Protestant doctrine of justification by grace alone and lead people back to popery. Hence, at Dort in 1618, double predestination was affirmed as Reformed orthodoxy.