Russian Provisional Government

Russian Provisional Government, internationally recognized government of Russia from February to October (March to November, New Style) 1917. It was formed by the Duma after the collapse of the Romanov dynasty and was initially composed entirely of liberal ministers, with the exception of Aleksandr F. Kerensky of the Socialist Revolutionary Party. The Provisional Government was reorganized twice over its eight-month existence, each time as a coalition of several political parties. At no point, however, was it able to adequately address the major problems afflicting the country, and it was swept from power in a bloodless coup by the Bolsheviks in the second phase of the Russian Revolution.

Collapse of the Russian Empire

By late February 1917, tradition was virtually the only claim to legitimacy remaining to the imperial regime in Russia. Even that foundation had been shaken by the Revolution of 1905, the loss of the Russo-Japanese War, and a long series of military failures in World War I. The imperial family was divided against itself, and the government was divided in its views of the imperial family. The Duma had a mixed opinion of the government, and it was far from giving it anything like the wholehearted support that it needed in the gloomy moments of an unsuccessful war. The authority of the Russian Orthodox Church was shaken by a series of scandals which touched not only the church hierarchy but also the Romanovs. The war with the Central Powers had affected the entire country. While the leaders of the Duma were dissatisfied because the war had not been better conducted, the mass of the people wondered why the war continued at all. The army had lost faith in its commanders, and its commanders had lost faith in the government, which had failed to supply them with adequate weapons and munitions.

The collapse, planned by no one, came suddenly on February 23 (March 8), 1917. A number of factories in Petrograd were undergoing strikes, and many of their workers were in the streets, as were people in shopping queues and women celebrating the international socialist anniversary of Women’s Day. These gatherings turned into demonstrations which proceeded to take over large areas of the capital. Workers took to the streets with political slogans: “Down with Autocracy!” and “Down with War!” Two days later Emperor Nicholas II ordered the military governor to fire on the demonstrators, but the soldiers refused to use their rifles, and unit after unit went over to the workers’ side. The police and gendarmes did shoot, however, and street fighting took place.

Creation of the Provisional Government

The Duma, which had been prorogued, refused to disperse, and on March 1 (March 14) it formed a government, headed by Georgy Yevgenyevich, Prince Lvov, and mainly composed of leaders of the Kadet and Octobrist parties. On the next day a deputation visited Nicholas II at his headquarters in Pskov and accepted his abdication on behalf of himself and his son, Alexis. When his brother Grand Duke Michael refused the throne, the Romanov dynasty came to an end. The demise of the empire saw the emergence of two separate authorities, both claiming to speak for the people but neither representing more than a section of it: the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies.

In general, the leaders of the Provisional Government reflected the beliefs of the more conservative members of the professional classes, although Aleksandr Kerensky, a member of the Trudoviki (Labour Group), espoused moderate socialism. The Soviet represented primarily the working class of the capital but could in a wider sense speak for the industrial workers of all Russia. With its ranks swollen by the arrival of socialists released from prison or returned from exile, it became a sort of parliament of Russian socialism, from the Socialist Revolutionaries to the Bolsheviks.

A fundamental question facing the new regime was that of legitimacy. The monarchy had been destroyed, and it could be replaced only by a government that reflected the will of the whole of Russia. However, this could be ascertained only by an elected Constituent Assembly. To hold such an election while Russia was at war with Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire seemed hardly possible, both because it would divert energies from the war effort (and the first Provisional Government coalition was eager to win the war) and because so many citizens were away in the army. The men of the Provisional Government were high-minded democrats who would be content with nothing less than a completely free and comprehensive election, and they were willing to wait for the end of the war, if need be, to have one. Their perfectionism proved disastrous. An immediate election would have caused less chaos than occurred later without it, and it would have conveyed an imperfect but significant democratic mandate. As things were, there was no legitimacy. The Provisional Government was left in the air and frequently found itself acting as if it were subordinate to the Petrograd Soviet.

The most important problem initially faced by the Provisional Government was whether to continue the war or, if not, how to get out of it. The foreign minister, Pavel Milyukov, a convinced patriot, believed that the war was just and that it was being fought to liberate the peoples oppressed by Austria-Hungary and the Ottomans. He also asserted that Russia should be rewarded for its efforts by acquiring Constantinople, the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, as well as Ottoman Armenia. The socialists were not interested in these aims and believed that the war should be ended “without annexations and without indemnities.” There was no evidence that the Central Powers would grant a just peace simply because the revolutionary Russians desired it, however, and, until those enemies were willing to make peace, the Russian motherland had to be defended. In any case, the new Russian leaders admitted that they could not simply exit the war without their allies’ consent.

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Some historians, when viewing the early days of the Provisional Government through the lens of the Russian Revolution, have questioned the wisdom of the Western Allies in their refusal to release Russia from its military obligations. At the time, however, such a move was inconceivable. The United States did not enter the war until April (March, Old Style) 1917, and many months would pass before American troops would constitute a meaningful force on the Western Front. The release of the German divisions engaged on the Eastern Front might have made it possible for Gen. Erich Ludendorff to crush the remaining Allies before the arrival of the American Expeditionary Force. As defeat by Germany understandably appeared to be the worst disaster that could befall the Western Allies, it followed that the war must continue.

If it were accepted that a Constituent Assembly could not be elected while the war went on, the various problems which could be decided only by such an assembly would remain unsolved. First among these was the redistribution of the landed estates among the peasants. Second was the claim of the non-Russian subjects of the empire for self-government (in the case of Poles and Finns, perhaps for complete independence). Third were various demands which might be put forward on behalf of the industrial workers, such as “workers’ control” in the factories, or even full nationalization of some enterprises or some branches of industry. As long as these problems remained unsolved, the discontent of land-hungry peasants, non-Russian nationalists, and miserably paid workers grew. Meanwhile, the Provisional Government had to rely on the old imperial bureaucracy, which was ever more demoralized. The lack of legitimacy made it difficult either to give or to carry out orders. From August (September, New Style) 1915, when Nicholas assumed control of the army and effective control of the state passed to the empress consort, Alexandra, Russia had lacked firm leadership at the top. With the monarchy toppled and the Provisional Government struggling to assert itself, the machinery of government was now breaking down on lower levels as well. It was a perfect opportunity for an uninhibited revolutionary demagogue.

Lenin’s arrival in Petrograd

A revolutionary of genius appeared on April 3 (April 16), 1917, when Vladimir Lenin arrived in Petrograd from Switzerland. With a group of 200 Russian emigres, including L. Martov and other Mensheviks, this leader of the Bolsheviks had journeyed to Russia across Germany, Sweden, and Finland. The German general staff, which reckoned that Lenin’s presence in Russia would be to the Central Powers’ advantage, authorized this passage. Lenin, of course, was no agent of the Germans, but there is evidence that in the following months his party received financial aid from the German authorities. This it badly needed in order to organize its propaganda efforts.

Lenin invigorated the Petrograd Soviet. He at once urged a policy of complete opposition to the Provisional Government. He said the Soviet should demand immediate peace and redistribution of land to the peasants. He declared that the Soviet should make known that it had no confidence in the Provisional Government and announced the slogan “All power to the soviets.”

In a bourgeois republic, with a parliamentary system of government, Lenin’s leadership prospects would not have been good. Parliamentary governments are generally formed by agreements between party leaders, whose ideas are already formed, and the parties’ representatives in the parliament coalesce into disciplined groups. In such conditions, the Bolsheviks would have had to bargain and compromise with other parties if they wished to take part in government coalitions, or they would have been driven into ineffective opposition. They could not have hoped to win an absolute majority in a Russian parliament. The soviets, on the other hand, were a very different forum. Their members were not trained politicians but the masses from the factories and—with the addition of “soldiers’ deputies” to the “workers’ deputies”—from the armed forces. Through the soviets, for the first time, the Russian masses were being brought into political life as raw material to be molded by an audacious leader.

In the soviets, votes were taken not according to fixed party allegiances but according to the sometimes fleeting passions of the workers and soldiers. Socialist Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, and Bolsheviks were represented, but they could not count on automatic support from party members. Oratory and propaganda could sway opinion in the soviets to and fro. Here was Lenin’s opportunity. In the soviets the Bolsheviks were at first a small minority, but, once Lenin began to assert himself, the Bolsheviks grew into a significant force. They stood, they said, for peace at once, land reform at once, workers’ control of the factories at once, and self-determination for the non-Russian peoples at once. If the Provisional Government’s spokesmen declared that these things could not be done immediately and that they were the task of the future Constituent Assembly, then this, Lenin claimed, was proof that the Provisional Government intended to prevent these things from ever being done. He argued that its leaders were enemies of the Russian workers and peasants and were mere agents of French and British capitalists and imperialists.

The April–May crisis

The first crisis of the Provisional Government came in April–May 1917, and, not surprisingly, it involved Russia’s war policy. Milyukov, the foreign minister, not only reassured the Western Allies that Russia would continue the war on their side, but also, in a press interview on March 23 (April 5), declared that Russia’s war aims included annexation of Austria-Hungary’s Ukrainian provinces and of Constantinople and the Straits. On March 27 (April 9) the Petrograd Soviet issued a declaration that Russia sought no gains from the war and was ready to conclude peace on the basis of “no annexations, no indemnities.” The members of the government were not in fact agreed on these problems. An attempt was made to bring about a compromise between Milyukov and the Soviet through a government declaration of April 8 (April 22) which described Russia’s aim as “the establishment of a durable peace on the basis of national self-determination.” The Soviet insisted that the text of this declaration be officially handed to the Allied governments. On April 17 (May 1) Milyukov transmitted the text but with a covering note in which he stated that Russia remained faithful to wartime agreements and intended to pursue the war to victory. When the Soviet became aware of Milyukov’s note, it naturally understood it to be a direct challenge.

The leaders of the Soviet organized mass demonstrations against both the war and Milyukov. The result was that he and the minister of war, Octobrist leader Aleksandr Guchkov, were forced to resign on May 2 (May 15). A new coalition was formed that included Socialist Revolutionary leader Viktor Chernov and Menshevik Irakli Tsereteli. The April–May events were important not only because the conservative elements of the Provisional Government were removed from power but also because the Petrograd Soviet had demonstrated that it could exert effective veto power over the Provisional Government, a fact that would not be lost on any of the parties involved.

The Kerensky Offensive and the July Days

Kerensky, who became minister of war in the coalition of May 5 (May 18), 1917, believed in fighting on for the new Russia. He had hoped to make the soldiers’ committees an instrument for increasing the efficiency of the Russian army and did his best to bolster morale with speeches of fiery eloquence during his visits to the front. Kerensky’s efforts were undermined by Bolshevik propaganda, however, by word of mouth and by the newspapers, which were distributed in profusion. In spite of opposition from the Bolsheviks and other parties of the far left, Kerensky believed the army capable of a new offensive, for which the Western Allies were clamouring. The Kerensky Offensive opened on June 18 (July 1) in Galicia, but, after small initial successes, it came to a standstill. Two weeks later a German counteroffensive drove the Russians back in confusion. Many units simply refused to fight. Lenin’s message of “revolutionary defeatism” had found a receptive audience at the front.

While the situation at the front was dire, events in the capital were on the verge of catastrophe. On June 3 (June 16), 1917 the First All-Russian Congress of Soviets had been convened in Petrograd, with soldiers’ as well as workers’ deputies present. Only about one-eighth of those attending declared themselves for the Bolsheviks. On June 18 (July 1) a mass demonstration was held by the moderate leaders of the Petrograd Soviet as a sign of the unity of the “revolutionary democracy,” and the Bolsheviks turned out in force with banners calling for an end to the war and a cessation of offensive movements on the front. Two weeks later, on July 3–4 (July 16–17), huge demonstrations in the capital evolved into a full-fledged insurrection against the government. The crowds included workers, soldiers, and a contingent of sailors from the naval base at Kronshtadt. The Bolsheviks had not planned this uprising, but they assumed leadership of it once it had started. For two days the protesters were in control of the capital, and Chernov narrowly escaped being lynched. However, the crowd made no determined effort to occupy government buildings, nor did the Bolsheviks wish premature action. At the end of the second day, the crowd drifted away.

The government responded to the July Days uprising by cracking down on the Bolsheviks. Lenin was forced into hiding in Finland. Documents (most probably forgeries) were published in the press which purported to prove that Lenin was a German agent. For a time the Bolsheviks lost ground in the soviets. On July 8 (July 21) the government was reorganized, and Kerensky became prime minister.

Nationalist movements and the Provisional Government

During this time nationalist movements among non-Russians were growing. The main Ukrainian nationalist organization was the Society of Ukrainian Progressives, a moderate socialist group headed by the leading Ukrainian nationalist intellectual figure, the historian Mykhaylo Hrushevsky. On March 4 (March 17), 1917, it took the initiative in summoning the Central Rada (“Council”) in Kiev. At first, the Rada’s aims were strictly cultural, but soon it put forward demands for political self-government. During the early summer, congresses of Ukrainian peasants, soldiers, and workers were held. From these meetings, three political parties emerged—Ukrainian Socialist-Revolutionaries, Ukrainian Social Democrats, and Socialist-Federalists—all of which stood for some form of national autonomy. The Rada was enlarged to include representatives of these forces, and in May it sent a delegation to Petrograd to ask for recognition of its claims.

The Provisional Government refused to regard the Central Rada, which had not been regularly elected by popular suffrage, as representing the people of Ukraine and insisted that the question of any future Ukrainian autonomy could be decided only by the All-Russian Constituent Assembly. On June 10 (June 23, Old Style) the Rada issued a solemn proclamation, the “First Universal,” declaring its intention to organize a system of democratic government for Ukraine but recognizing that this would later have to be confirmed by the Constituent Assembly. It also set up an executive authority called the General Secretariat, a rudimentary cabinet. On June 29 (July 12) Kerensky and two other ministers went to Kiev for further discussions. These resulted in the issuance of a “Second Universal,” the text of which represented no more than a verbal agreement. Nevertheless, such power as existed in the increasing chaos was in the Central Rada’s hands.

The Provisional Government in March had already repealed all legislation incompatible with the Finnish constitution, promised to extend Finland’s autonomy, and ordered the Finnish parliament to be summoned. There the strongest party was the Social Democrats, who desired independence and showed little patience with the Provisional Government. By July virtually all political authority in Finland had been claimed by the Finnish parliament.

In the Baltic provinces Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian nationalist movements gathered strength, while the local Germans were divided between loyalty to Russia and hopes of German victory in the war. In Transcaucasia the Armenians largely remained loyal to Russia, and in Georgia the Mensheviks remained committed to the Provisional Government with the expectation that it would soon proclaim a Russian republic.

Russia’s sizable Muslim population also made its feelings known. On May 1 (May 14) the First All-Russian Muslim Congress was held in Moscow. There was a division of opinion between the people of the borderlands (Central Asia and Azerbaijan), who wished for territorial self-government within a Russian republic, and the Tatars of the Volga, who, being geographically more scattered, preferred to have a central administrative organ for all the Muslims of Russia and to be directly represented in the Russian government. This last notion was disliked by the border peoples not only because they wished their own lands to be autonomous but also because they suspected the Tatars of trying to achieve a privileged status for themselves. The congress adopted the autonomists’ platform by a substantial majority. It also set up a Muslim National Council, the Shuro, in Petrograd to put Muslim views before the government. Its hopes of obtaining a ministerial post for one of its members, however, were disappointed.

The Moscow State Conference

To reinforce his authority with the support of some sort of representative body, Kerensky convened a State Conference in Moscow. Meeting August 12–15 (August 25–28), it was composed of members of the Duma as well as representatives of soviets, local government authorities, trade unions, business interests, and the professions. In all, nearly 2,500 people attended the gathering. The point that most clearly emerged from this conference was the sharp division on the conduct of the war. The parties of the left continued to demand peace without annexations and without indemnities but admitted that the country had to be defended until peace was obtained. They put their faith in further “democratization of the army” and further proliferation of committees and commissars. The Bolsheviks, who were not represented at the conference, continued to demand immediate peace and to denounce all other parties as warmongers and agents of the Western Allies.

On the other side were forces that believed in a restoration of traditional military discipline. This new formation of the right consisted mainly of persons who a year earlier would have been considered to be on the left, persons with a liberal or even radical political background. They were not reactionaries in the sense of wishing to return to the past, and they were certainly not monarchists. They believed in a democratic Russia, but they insisted that it must be defended. The key difference between them and the non-Bolshevik left was that national defense seemed to them the most urgent task, the precondition for the internal social reforms. They accepted many of these as necessary, though they were less radical in this respect than the left.

Kornilov’s Rebellion

The most effective spokesman for the new right was Gen. Lavr Kornilov, an officer of humble origin. He was the son of poor Cossack parents, basically apolitical but certainly no admirer of Nicholas II. Impressed by Kornilov’s military record and his personal qualities, Kerensky had on July 19 (August 1) appointed him commander in chief. For a time, these two tried to cooperate, each believing that the other was necessary for the salvation of Russia. However, at the Moscow State Conference the relations between them, and the profound hostility between the political groups which looked, respectively, to each of them as leader, became clear.

On August 21 (September 3), the Germans occupied Riga, and Petrograd itself appeared to be in danger. This intensified the urgency of more efficient military command, and Kornilov became convinced that he must assume control of the civil government as well as the army. Kornilov was surrounded by a number of right-wing politicians, whose clumsy efforts to obtain Kerensky’s support for the proposed military coup d’état only brought about a complete breach between the two. On August 27 (September 9) Kerensky denounced Kornilov as a traitor and relieved him of his command. Kornilov replied by sending a cavalry corps against the capital. Kerensky appealed to the soviets and the workers to defend the revolution. This provided the Bolsheviks with an excellent opportunity to put themselves at the head of the resistance. When the troops reached the outskirts of Petrograd, they were met by delegates of the soviets, who harangued them with revolutionary appeals. The morale of the troops was low, and they had no desire to fight their own countrymen; they therefore submitted to the Provisional Government. Their commander, Gen. Aleksandr Krymov, committed suicide, and Kornilov himself, who had remained at his headquarters at the front, was arrested. On September 1 (September 14), 1917, Kerensky proclaimed Russia a republic.

The Kornilov rebellion was a defeat for the right, but it was certainly no victory for Kerensky. Those who gained were the Bolsheviks, who had always argued that Kerensky and the moderates were incompetent to defend the revolution, and who themselves had played a large part in the defeat of Kornilov. Bolshevik prestige had never been so high among the working class of Petrograd and among the ranks of the military forces in the capital. By mid-September the Bolsheviks had a majority in the soviets of both Petrograd and Moscow. Lenin, still in hiding, decided that the time had come to seize power and urgently exhorted the party, by correspondence from Finland, to prepare for insurrection. At the Sixth Congress of the Bolshevik Party, convened in Petrograd in late July (early August), the intention to seize power, regardless of the formal majority in the soviets, had already been asserted. The loss of Bolshevik support in the soviets, as a result of the July demonstrations and the charge of serving the Germans, had not deterred Lenin from his aim. Now that the Bolsheviks were once more popular, the arguments for action were further strengthened. The party leaders were, however, divided. Grigory Zinovyev and Lev Kamenev, two of the most eminent, were opposed to early action. On the other hand, the able recruit Leon Trotsky, who had brought his own faction into the Bolshevik ranks in the wake of the July Days uprising, strongly supported Lenin and began active preparations.

The Kornilov rebellion was a turning point of the Russian Revolution. It is essential to note that the struggle was between not two forces but three. These were the right (conservatives, liberals, and Russian nationalists), the left (moderate socialists, from the right wing of the Socialist Revolutionaries to the left wing of the Mensheviks), and Lenin. The struggle that impressed politically minded people in Russia and observers of the Russian scene abroad was that between the first and the second factions. Both sides in this struggle underestimated the Bolsheviks. To Kornilov, the real enemy was socialism, personified in Kerensky. The socialists, to him and his allies, were a gang of cosmopolitan anarchists who were ruining Russia. They were, at best, undisciplined and dangerous utopians, and, at worst, traitors to their country. To Kerensky, conversely, Kornilov and his supporters represented counterrevolution, the bloody repression of the working masses by incorrigibly reactionary militarists, and the denial of all the ideals of liberty and justice for which the revolution stood. The image which each side had of the other may have been distorted and unjust, but there could be no doubt of the profound and sincere conviction of each.

Lenin was underrated by both the contending groups. To Kerensky, Lenin was another revolutionary, misguided and fanatical perhaps but still on his side of the barricade. The whole tradition of the revolutionary movement made it impossible for Kerensky to compare Lenin to Kornilov. Kerensky had shown long forbearance toward Lenin’s provocative action before ordering his arrest, but Lenin himself was completely free from revolutionary sentimentality. To him, Kerensky was every bit as much an enemy as was Kornilov or Nicholas II. Unshakably convinced that he and his party held a monopoly of revolutionary wisdom and that they embodied the will of the revolutionary working class, regardless of what any individual workers might or might not wish, Lenin had no doubt that it was his duty to lead his party to victory against all opposition. The defeat of Kornilov and the exhaustion of the Provisional Government gave him his chance.

The Bolshevik Revolution

Trotsky, elected chairman of the Petrograd Soviet on September 23 (October 6), 1917, set up a “military revolutionary committee” of the Soviet, which planned insurrection without much attempt at secrecy. Kerensky pursued his efforts to create some sort of representative assembly to give his government authority. Neither the Democratic Conference, which had opened in Petrograd on September 14 (September 27) and met for a week, nor the Council of the Republic (or “pre-parliament”), which met on October 7 (October 20), had any influence on events. Kerensky seemed unable to take any action against the military preparations of the Bolsheviks, who were busily subverting troops in the capital, distributing arms, and appointing reliable men as commissars in military units.

On the night of October 24–25 (November 6–7) the Bolsheviks acted. They met with very little resistance, and by the following evening the capital was in their hands. The Provisional Government had been swept aside, and power passed to the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, which had convened on October 25 (November 7). The Bolsheviks and their Left Socialist Revolutionary allies constituted a majority in that body, and they elected Lenin as chairman of the Council of People’s Commissars, the governing body of the new Soviet government. In Moscow the fighting went on for several days. Kerensky fled from Petrograd to the front but was unable to bring sufficient forces back to threaten the Bolsheviks.

No effective resistance was organized from the headquarters of the front at Mahilyow, and in November the commander in chief, Gen. Nikolay Dukhonin, was replaced by the Bolsheviks’ nominee, Nikolay Krylenko. A number of senior officers, including Kornilov and former commander in chief Mikhail Alekseyev, escaped to the southeast and began to plan an anti-Bolshevik force, the so-called Volunteer Army, in the region of the Don. While Kornilov and Alekseyev built what would become the White Army, Kerensky remained in hiding, eventually escaping to the West in May 1918. By that time, the Treaties of Brest-Litovsk had been signed, ending Russia’s participation in World War I, and the seeds of the Russian Civil War had been sown.