The Rise of Andrew Jackson
The Rise of Andrew Jackson, This detailed original account of the life of Andrew Jackson written for Encyclopædia Britannica by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, authors of The Rise of Andrew Jackson: Myth, Manipulation, and the Making of Modern Politics (2018), describes how the seventh president of the United States made his way to, and transformed, that office. Jackson was a planter, lawyer, U.S. congressional representative (1796–97), U.S. Senator (1797–98, 1823–25), judge of the Tennessee Superior Court (1798–1804), Tennessee militia officer (1801–14), U.S. Army major general (1814–21), and territorial governor of Florida (1821). He ran for president in 1824 and again in 1828, and he became president in 1829. He served two terms, left the White House in 1837, and died eight years later, in his native South. Jackson’s presidency was viewed favourably by Americans and American historians for generations. By the later 20th century the brutality and viciousness of Jackson’s decimation of the Cherokee and other Native Americans through his policies define his legacy. The Heidlers, writing in 2019, lay bare that man and his place in American history.
Andrew Jackson was the first president from west of the Appalachian Mountains. He was the beneficiary and purported leader of a significant political movement later called “Jacksonian Democracy” to denote the change from gentry control of American politics to broader popular participation. As president, Jackson enlarged the power and scope of the office with the innovative use of the veto power. He earned plaudits for quashing a serious sectional threat to the American Union in the Nullification crisis of 1833, but his controversial program to relocate southeastern Indians to regions west of the Mississippi River, a policy known as Indian removal, evoked the condemnation of humanitarians at the time and tarnishes his reputation to this day.
Youth and Adulthood
Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, into a family of Scots-Irish Presbyterians. His parents Andrew and Elizabeth (nee Hutchinson) Jackson had emigrated with their sons Robert (b. 1765) and Hugh (b. 1763) to colonial North America from County Antrim in what is now Northern Ireland. They settled among kin and other Scots-Irish immigrants in a region called the Waxhaws after its original Indian inhabitants. Remote and thinly populated with scrubby trees and marginal soil, the Waxhaws were part of the Carolina upcountry. The 200-acre Jackson homestead on Ligget’s Branch near the headwaters of Twelve Mile Creek was attractive mainly because it was near Elizabeth Jackson’s relatives, who had come to America earlier.
Elizabeth’s family proved indispensable after her husband’s untimely death shortly before Andrew Jackson was born. She retreated to a relative’s home and gave birth to Jackson there. Uncertainty about the site’s location later led to confusion about Jackson’s birthplace. The boundary between North and South Carolina remained unresolved until 1770, but Jackson always claimed he was born in South Carolina. The best evidence supports his assertion.
Though he never knew his father, Jackson had plenty of male guidance as he grew up. Uncles and cousins taught him and his brothers the skills essential for the frontier, such as how to hunt, farm, and handle firearms. Jackson early exhibited a volatile temper and stubborn independence. His anger was easy to trigger, and his acute sense of honor made him alert for slights. He seems to have suffered from sialorrhea (hypersalivation), and the symptomatic drooling invited playful jibes and outright insults. Jackson reacted to both as affronts, and almost all his boyhood companions had memories of violent episodes with windmilling fists and ear-biting tussles. Young Jackson grew tall but never stout, and his lithe frame made him an easy match for larger boys. Everyone soon learned not to cross him, however. Jackson not only fought anyone regardless of size but also refused to stop fighting when losing. Both the touchiness and the tenacity never changed throughout his long life. Over the years, everyone eventually discovered that challenging Andrew Jackson was more trouble than it was worth.
Despite his combative streak, Jackson was a sufficiently able student to encourage his mother in the hope he would become a minister of the Gospel. He attended a “classical academy” operated by William Humphries who included a bit of Latin in the curriculum, a preferred skill for a cleric. The school met in the Waxhaws Church, but that was as close to the profession of preaching that young Jackson ever came. More revealing, perhaps, was his keen grasp of cartography.
Some reports have him reading with fluency as early as age five, but those are likely exaggerations. Four years later, though, he knew his letters well enough to become a “public reader,” an asset for a community where illiterates were eager for news from the broader world. Young Jackson had a shrill voice that carried well. He remembered reading the Declaration of Independence to his neighbors in August 1776.
Jackson’s formal education ended abruptly at age 13 when the American Revolutionary War plunged the Waxhaws into chaos and closed down the classical school. He remained an eccentric speller as well as a careless grammarian all his life. He read regularly but always for utility, and he freely admitted that the only work of fiction he ever completed was Oliver Goldsmith’s The Vicar of Wakefield. Law texts for training, pamphlets for political activities, and newspapers for current events consumed his time. Political opponents tried to injure Jackson by pointing out his grammatical transgressions and comical spelling errors, but they were always surprised that the growing number of people who supported him did not care.
The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) destroyed what was left of Andrew Jackson’s immediate family while nearly killing him, and he never forgave the British for it. His oldest brother Hugh was only sixteen and already ill when he fought in the Battle of Stono Ferry (June 20, 1779). He died the following day. Though barely in their teens, Andrew and his brother Robert were intent on doing a man’s part in the fight, but after a series of colorful adventures and close scrapes, their luck ran out when a British patrol captured them. The officer in charge ordered Andrew to clean his muddy boots and was infuriated by the boy’s belligerent insistence that he was not a servant but a prisoner of war. The officer’s whistling saber struck Jackson with such force that it sliced his left hand to the bone and laid open his scalp.
With Jackson’s wounds fresh and untended, the British imprisoned him and his brother at Camden, South Carolina, where they contracted smallpox and likely would have died had their mother not secured their release. As it happened, Robert did die, and Elizabeth only barely saved her only surviving son with weeks of constant care. Finally confident that Andrew was out of danger, she left for Charles Town (Charleston, after the war) to care for relatives being held captive on a British prison ship. These vessels were notoriously unhealthy, and epidemics routinely thinned their inmates. In November 1781, Elizabeth herself came down with “ship fever,” most likely cholera, and died. The British buried her with scores of other victims in unmarked graves on Charles Town Neck.
Andrew Jackson was fourteen, pitted from smallpox, and marked by the bright red gash on his forehead that healed into a white scar. Both imperfections were visible to the day he died, but deeper scars lay beneath, hidden but no less real. He never forgave those he considered responsible for them.
Lawyer, Politician, and Judge
After the American Revolution, relatives in the Waxhaws took in the orphaned Jackson, but his fits of temper alienated them. He struck out alone to work briefly for a saddle maker and even tried school teaching, but mostly he caroused in Charleston. Exploring the demimonde of cockfights and card games while honing his knowledge of betting odds at horse races, he quickly squandered a relatively abundant inheritance of some £400 from an Irish relative. Impending poverty could have forced his return to the Waxhaws, but he risked his horse on a final roll of the dice and won another modest stake. These experiences sobered the young man of 16, but they did not blunt his enthusiasm for wagering on horses, which remained a passion all of his life.
Leaving behind Charleston’s expensive pastimes for more sedate Salisbury, North Carolina, Jackson resolved to become a lawyer. In the 1780s on the American frontier, the profession required more courage than erudition. Lawyers often had to face down prickly clients and pugnacious colleagues while pleading before makeshift courts. Legal training consisted of clerking duties that exposed a student to proper comportment as much as to statutes. Jackson performed such functions first for Spruce Macay and then John Stokes. In addition to gaining a friend in fellow student John McNairy, Jackson gained admittance to the North Carolina bar in September 1787.
In the autumn of 1788, Jackson and McNairy moved to Nashville in North Carolina’s Western District. This little community on the Cumberland River was less than a decade old and consisted of only a few stockaded log cabins. At Nashville, McNairy became a judge of the Superior Court for the Western District at the age of 26. On his authority, McNairy appointed Andrew Jackson, age 21, public prosecutor, a post comparable to a district attorney. Jackson’s cases mainly involved debt collection and land disputes. His ability to bring debtors to heel and sort out titles with common sense made him popular with creditors and deed holders alike. When North Carolina ceded its Trans-Appalachian wilderness to the U.S. Government in 1790, and the region became the federal Territory South of the Ohio River (informally, the Southwest Territory), territorial governor William Blount renewed Jackson’s appointment.
Blount’s influence as a powerful patron accounted for Jackson’s rapid rise. Blount (pronounced “Blunt”) had been a member of the North Carolina legislature where he was an avid speculator in western lands. In addition to amassing enormous amounts of acreage, Blount established a powerful political machine in the Trans-Appalachia by sponsoring land agents, promoting officials in budding local governments, and boosting the careers of young attorneys such as McNairy and Jackson. When the territory became eligible for statehood in 1796, Jackson was a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention. He ran unopposed that year to become the new state’s first representative in the U.S. House of Representatives while Blount became one of Tennessee’s first U.S. Senators. When the Senate expelled Blount in 1797 over questions about his land dealings, he arranged for his protégé Andrew Jackson to take the vacated seat.
Jackson’s readiness for these jobs was doubtful as an undistinguished record in them shows. He was a silent presence at the Tennessee constitutional convention. His only action of note in Congress was to secure federal compensation for a 1793 campaign by Southwest Territory militia against the Chickamauga Cherokee Indians. Because Jackson disapproved of President George Washington’s palliative British diplomacy, he joined those congressmen intent on insulting Washington by voting against symbolic resolutions celebrating the president’s birthday and praising his Annual Message. Before the end of his two-year term, a disenchanted Jackson left the nation’s capital in Philadelphia in March 1797 and announced his retirement from public life. Even though Blount persuaded him to enter the Senate, Jackson was not happy about it. After he presented his credentials in November 1797, he became singularly invisible in that body’s annals.
In only a few months personal financial reverses, as well as his general dissatisfaction with the Senate, prompted Jackson to resign his seat in April 1798. That same year, Blount’s support helped Jackson win election as a judge on Tennessee’s Superior Court. In this capacity and at an annual salary of $800, Jackson presided from the bench for the next six years and by all accounts was a confident and forcible jurist, though not a scholarly one. He had augmented his passable law library while residing in Philadelphia by purchasing standard works on English common law and compilations of United States statutes, but his resort to learned treatises was infrequent. Jackson left no written opinions, but that was the usual practice until his successor, John Overton, began issuing written rulings after 1804. Jackson showed more even temper as a judge than in any other of his occupations, and he was adequate in adjudicating disputes in the Tennessee wilderness at the time. He trusted ordinary people to consider evidence and reach appropriate conclusions. Jackson routinely instructed juries that the law always meant to achieve the “right” of a matter and that goal should guide their deliberations.
Marriage and Scandal
In 1788 shortly after his arrival in Nashville, Andrew Jackson secured lodgings with Rachel Stockley Donelson, the widow of Col. John Donelson, one of Nashville’s founders. The importance of the family possibly made the Donelson blockhouse attractive to Jackson despite its inconvenient location, which was across the Cumberland River and some ten miles from Nashville.
For other reasons, though, Jackson’s choice was momentous. At the Donelson residence, he met two of the most important people in his life. One was fellow lawyer John Overton who, like Jackson, had recently migrated to Nashville and had also become a protégé of William Blount. Overton was a native Virginian and, unlike Jackson, carried an aura of background and breeding marked by calm deliberation and tempered manners. Despite their differences, they became close friends and eventually business partners, particularly in lucrative and sometimes risky land speculations. Their friendship spanned decades, and Overton’s contribution to Jackson’s political rise in the 1820s was pivotal.
The other person Jackson met at the Widow Donelson’s was her daughter, also named Rachel. She was unhappily married to a Kentuckian named Lewis Robards, which seemed to pose an insuperable obstacle to any romance with Jackson. Nevertheless, they were attracted to each other, and their warm friendship enraged Robards, whose groundless jealousy had already estranged her. There is some evidence that Jackson and Rachel married before Robards filed for divorce, but even if they had waited, the news of Robards’s plan for a divorce caused them to act hastily. Jackson’s friends later claimed that he married Rachel in the belief that her marriage to Robards was legally as well as emotionally ended. It was not. Two years passed before Robards completed the complicated process of dissolving his marriage, and by then he did so on the grounds that Rachel’s relations with Jackson made her both a bigamist and an adulteress. In 1794, a Kentucky court finally granted the divorce by confirming the charges against Rachel and making them a matter of public record.
For this and other reasons, John Overton believed a documented wedding ceremony was necessary. It took place quietly in January 1794. While it was required to make their union legal, the ceremony seemed to validate the ugly charges lodged by Robards. In many ways, Rachel never recovered from the public shame this brought on her. The gossip began almost immediately, and it persisted for the rest of their lives. On the occasions when it was vocal, Jackson often reacted ferociously and sometimes resorted to violence.
In 1803, he almost fought a duel with Tennessee governor John Sevier over a disparaging remark Sevier had made about the marriage. The intervention of friends prevented bloodshed on that occasion, but Charles Dickinson, a young Nashville attorney, was not so fortunate. While his and Jackson’s quarrel in 1806 was ostensibly over a horserace, Dickinson’s loose talk about Rachel’s past was the underlying cause for Jackson’s anger. In the duel that resulted, Dickinson seriously injured Jackson, but Jackson mortally wounded Dickinson. Although Jackson would acquire the reputation for fighting numerous duels, there were only three that led to an encounter, and Dickinson’s was the only one where shots were fired. That event added to the perception of Andrew Jackson as heedless and trigger happy. Dickinson had prominent connections in the East and some standing in Tennessee. Killing him seriously injured Jackson’s reputation at the time and shadowed Jackson’s career for years.
Andrew and Rachel Jackson enjoyed a long and happy marriage, and though childless, they surrounded themselves with her nieces and nephews. In 1808, Jackson adopted one of those nephews, renaming him Andrew Jackson, Jr. Meanwhile, Jackson’s occasionally fierce efforts to protect Rachel’s reputation did little to dampen gossip and in some respects kept it current. Although the story dimmed with the passing years, especially when eclipsed by their mutual devotion, it became a weapon for political enemies in the 1820s as a way to paint him as morally unfit for the presidency. Rachel’s death in 1828 shortly after Jackson won election to that office cast a pall over this triumph, and his grief would color his response to social controversies during his first term.
Planter and Businessman
Jackson became a rising man of business and property soon after his arrival in Nashville. During his first years of residence, he swore an oath of allegiance to the King of Spain but only because Spain’s imperium dominated the frontier from its provincial headquarters at New Orleans where Spanish administrators controlled Mississippi River navigation. When the American government established the Southwest Territory, Jackson promptly swore allegiance to the United States in December 1790.
Jackson set up stores in conjunction with his farms, and he became partners with established merchants, providing financial backing for a share of their profits. He traded with Philadelphia firms for finished goods in exchange for cotton, which he shipped down the Cumberland to the Mississippi for passage through New Orleans. By far, though, his most active business was land speculation. In 1794, Jackson entered a partnership with John Overton to purchase and sell land. They were not always careful about Indian titles, and Jackson at least twice violated United States treaties that guaranteed Indian holdings.
When he entered politics in the mid-1790s, Jackson’s land holdings were so extensive that he could only approximate their extent. While the broad range of his land dealings should have made him wealthy, one complicated transaction saddled him with a ruinous debt so pressing that it was the reason for his 1798 resignation from the Senate. This financial burden dogged him for years.
Despite its risks, land speculation could transform fortune hunters into gentry with the obligation to behave as aristocratic planters. These upwardly mobile men modeled themselves on Virginia’s Tidewater elite who themselves had adopted the ways of the English squire. The desire for status along with Jackson’s wish to make Rachel comfortable prompted him to establish a residence at Poplar Grove on the Cumberland shortly after their marriage. He soon moved to a finer home he built at Hunter’s Hill, which he purchased in 1795 at the same time he bought a tract of 640 acres that would become the Hermitage, his final home. He moved to it in 1804 and gradually added additional acreage. Also situated on the Cumberland but closer to Nashville, the Hermitage was a cotton farm worked by slaves. Over the years Jackson acquired more slaves and added land until the people numbered more than 100 souls and the property more than 1,000 acres.
Though styled a “plantation,” which brings to mind the myth of the Old South’s supposedly ubiquitous white-columned mansions, the house at the Hermitage was initially simple to the point of primitive. Jackson occasionally improved the structure, but in 1818 he built a new house on a site selected by Rachel. This house formed the basis for the mansion that exists today, though Rachel died before the final renovation. A catastrophic fire in 1834 gutted the structure, and Jackson’s restoration enlarged and refined it. He returned to the Hermitage in 1837 after leaving the presidency and died there in 1845.