Heidegger had many gifted followers, including Hannah Arendt (1906–75), Karl Löwith (1897–1973), and Herbert Marcuse (1898–1979). Perhaps his most talented student, however, was Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900–2002). Trained as a classicist, Gadamer never shared his mentor’s philosophical radicalism. To the contrary, he always insisted on the virtues of tradition, and his major work, Truth and Method (1960), even contains an impassioned defense of “prejudice,” in polemical opposition to the Enlightenment-rationalist view that all irrational belief should be dissolved. Known chiefly for his sophisticated development of the theory of hermeneutics (the philosophical study of interpretation, broadly construed), Gadamer stressed the inevitable historical situatedness of the interpretive process; he therefore rejected the ideal of an objective, or universally valid, interpretation grounded in allegedly universal principles of rationality or logic. He insisted instead that questions of interpretation always involve a relationship of “dialogue” between interpreter and interpreted and a “fusion of horizons” between present and past. Hence, the task of interpretation or understanding becomes in principle infinite, without any final goal.

Sartre

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–80) studied the philosophies of Husserl and Heidegger while a student at the French Academy in Berlin in 1933–34. His philosophical novel Nausea (1938), which won him wide literary acclaim, was accompanied in the same period by a number of minor philosophical studies, including Transcendence of the Ego (1936–37), The Emotions: Outline of a Theory (1939), and The Psychology of Imagination (1940). In 1943 Sartre published his first major philosophical work, Being and Nothingness, which immediately established his reputation as the leading representative of existential phenomenology, or existentialism, in France.

Sartre conceived existentialism as a philosophy of radical freedom. He recognized two primary modes of being: consciousness, which he called the “For-itself,” and the world of inert matter or things, which he called the “In-itself,” or “facticity.” For Sartre, the In-itself is first and foremost an obstacle to the For-itself’s drive toward self-actualization—as indeed are all other selves, which he called the “Other.” From a phenomenological point of view, the For-itself is radically “free,” insofar as its relationship to objects purportedly constitutes the objective world. Some of Sartre’s affirmations of human freedom, however, were extreme to the point of absurdity, as when he claimed that “even the red-hot pincers of the executioner do not exempt us from being free.” Like Husserl’s Cartesian Meditations, Being and Nothingness struck some critics as straying dangerously close to radical subjectivism or even solipsism.

For Sartre, the paradoxical futility of human existence lies in the fact that the For-itself, wishing to escape the radical responsibility that necessarily follows from its radical freedom, vainly attempts to become like the In-itself—like a thing. However, by conceiving itself in this way—as a thing that does not act but is acted upon by forces outside itself—the For-itself is guilty of a kind of dishonesty, which Sartre calls “bad faith.” Little wonder that Sartre concluded Being and Nothingness by declaring that “human reality…is by nature an unhappy consciousness,” and “man is a useless passion.”

Reflecting in the 1950s on the realities of the war and the German occupation of his country, Sartre came to view his prewar philosophy of freedom as naive and untenable. It was necessary, he concluded, for existentialism to come to terms with history. Accordingly, in his major philosophical work of the postwar period, The Critique of Dialectical Reason (1960), he attempted to combine an existentialist doctrine of individual freedom with a Marxist philosophy of history. Predictably, however, the French communist intelligentsia showed little sympathy for his project, which they dismissed as an individualist, petty bourgeois deformation. Near the end of his life, Sartre returned to work on The Family Idiot, his monumental four-volume biographical study of Gustave Flaubert.

de Beauvoir

Sartre concluded Being and Nothingness by suggesting the need for an ethics, which he had failed to include. This void was partly filled by the philosopher and novelist Simone de Beauvoir (1908–86), Sartre’s lifelong companion. In The Ethics of Ambiguity (1947), de Beauvoir argued that ethics is inherently situational and therefore refractory to attempts (such as Kant’s) at formalization in terms of general principles or laws. But de Beauvoir undoubtedly achieved her greatest renown as a feminist philosopher. In 1949 she published her major work, The Second Sex, in which she masterfully exposed the way in which prevailing conceptions of femininity were defined by male interests. Employing the existential approach she had developed with Sartre, de Beauvoir further argued that neither biology nor tradition implies that there is anything fixed or eternal about women’s nature. Instead, biology and tradition must be seen as points of departure for women’s autonomous self-realization. Emancipation is never something given once and for all, but a verité à faire—a truth to be made.