General principles of criminal law

Rule against retroactivity

One widely accepted principle of criminal law is the rule against retroactivity, which prohibits the imposition of ex post facto laws (i.e., laws that would allow an individual to be punished for conduct that was not criminal at the time it was carried out). The rule restricts the authority of judges to declare new offenses (though not necessarily to expand the scope of old ones by interpretation).

This principle has not always been accepted in all countries. Norway and Denmark, for example, both passed laws after World War II that retroactively made cooperation with the Nazis a crime. Thousands of people were tried, convicted, and imprisoned under the laws, and about 40 in each country were executed. In the United States, so-called “Megan’s laws,” enacted in the 1990s, required convicted sex offenders to register with law enforcement officials in their communities; the officials in turn would notify other community residents of the sex offenders’ presence. In most states, Megan’s laws were applied to offenders who committed their crimes before the laws were passed. For several years courts were divided on whether registration constituted retroactive punishment in violation of the ex post facto clause of the U.S. Constitution. The question was finally decided in 2003 when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Smith et al. v. Doe et al. that Alaska’s Megan’s law was nonpunitive and thus constitutional (see also sexual-predator law).

Intention

One of the most-important general principles of criminal law is that an individual normally cannot be convicted of a crime without having intended to commit the act in question. With few exceptions, the individual does not need to know that the act itself is a crime, as ignorance of the law is no excuse for criminal behaviour. Thus, if a person believes that an act is perfectly legal and intentionally performs that act, the legal requirement of criminal intention is met.

In most Western countries, legal codes recognize insanity as a condition in which a person lacks criminal intention. There are several versions of the law of insanity, but in the most common version insanity is defined as a mental disease or defect that causes a person either not to know what he is doing or not to know that what he is doing is wrong. A legal finding of insanity results in an acquittal of criminal charges (“not guilty by reason of insanity”), because the person lacks the required intention, though such a verdict is very rare in those countries that recognize this defense. Another very rare condition that wholly exempts individuals from criminal liability is a form of involuntary conduct known as automatism, a state in which the conscious mind does not control bodily movements—such as during sleepwalking—thus rendering an individual unaccountable for even serious consequences.

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In contrast, most types of mental disorder (e.g., schizophrenia, mental retardation, or paranoia) do not affect criminal intention, though mental impairment may be considered at the time of sentencing as a mitigating factor that reduces the punishment associated with the crime. For example, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 2002, in Atkins v. Virginia, that a sentence of capital punishment for people with mental retardation was unconstitutional; however, such people can be sentenced to life in prison without parole. The practice of not acquitting those with mental impairments but mitigating their punishments is found in many common-law countries, including Canada, England, and Australia.

The principle of criminal intention is subject to many other exceptions and qualifications. For a very few offenses, known as offenses of strict liability, it is abandoned completely or is allowed only a limited scope. For example, employers may be held liable if employees are injured on the job, regardless of how carefully the employers followed safety precautions, and manufacturers may be held liable for injuries that result from product defectiveness, even if they exhibited no fault or negligence in the manufacturing process whatsoever. For a very few other offenses, the individual must have a “specific intent” either to commit a crime (e.g., a common definition of burglary involves breaking and entering a dwelling “with intent to commit a felony therein”) or to achieve the consequences of an act (e.g., first-degree murder usually requires the specific intent to achieve the death of the victim). The fact that an individual had been drinking or using drugs before committing a crime is not in itself a defense, except possibly for crimes that require such specific intent. Provocation is not generally a defense either, except in cases of murder, where evidence of a high degree of provocation (in English law, sufficient to provoke a reasonable person into acting in the same way as the accused) could result in a verdict of manslaughter, even if the killing was intentional. On the other hand, some “felony murder” statutes attribute criminal intention to any deaths that occur during the commission of certain “dangerous felonies.” This is similar to strict liability. For example, in one case in the United States, a person committing a robbery took a hostage, who then was accidentally killed by the police. The robber was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to death.

Criminal responsibility

Criminal responsibility applies not only to those who perform criminal acts but also to those who aid and abet a perpetrator by encouraging or in any way knowingly helping in the commission of such an act (e.g., by providing information, implements, or practical help). Those who actually perform the criminal act (e.g., wielding the weapon that strikes the fatal blow) are often called principals in the first degree; those who assist at the time of the commission of the offense (e.g., holding the victim down while the principal in the first degree strikes the blow) are principals in the second degree; and those who assist before the crime takes place (e.g., by lending the weapon or by providing information) are accessories before the fact. Usually, the law considers all equally responsible and liable to the same punishment.

In many cases, though, the accessory before the fact is considered more culpable (e.g., if he has instigated the offense and arranged for it to be committed by an associate), and in some cases the person who actually performs the criminal act is completely innocent of all intent (e.g., a nurse who unknowingly administers to a patient, on a doctor’s instructions, medicine that turns out to be poison). In the latter situation, the person who carries out the act is an innocent agent and not criminally responsible, and the person who caused the innocent agent to act is considered the principal in the first degree.

An accessory after the fact is one who helps a felon to evade arrest or conviction, possibly by hiding him or by destroying evidence. However, some jurisdictions (e.g., England), having enacted specific statutes to prosecute such behaviour, no longer use the expression accessory after the fact.