For rational decision making to occur, an individual must gather information and analyze potential choices by devising alternate and complete sets of ends-means goals for all members of the organization. If a single individual cannot do this, then the leadership must complete this planning function so an organization can be rational. Leaders must create logical ends-means chains, as well as set out clear subgoals supported by appropriate factual and normative premises. Some scholars believe this task to be impossible. No group, they argue, no matter how clever or technically competent, can create subgoals and coordinate efforts at a place like IBM or the New York public school system. The contexts and environments change too quickly, the technology is too complicated and contingent, and the organizations are too large and unwieldy for leaders to effectively imagine and evaluate complete alternative plans of action for the entire organization.

If overall coordination and top-down guidance is impossible, then how do regular members make decisions? According to some organizational theorists, individuals faced with change will tend to continue doing what they already know how to do. Decisions are repetitive and similar because the guide to future action is past action. Bureaucrats are content to use the same procedures and forms, comfortable in their routines. If that regular behaviour produces a result that they perceive as failure, individuals will adjust to avoid the failure. Change is reactive and incremental. In cases where feedback to individuals lags or no feedback exists at all, change may never occur. Bureaucracies exhibit incredible inertia, and reform is a mammoth undertaking, usually with modest results.

Other organization theorists explained in more theoretical detail why individuals will tend to repeat decisions and follow routines. They argued that humans make sense of the world by using routines that frame experiences to make them intelligible. These informal routines absorb uncertainty, making it possible for humans to function by allowing them to focus on just a few important decisions. Formal organizations, especially hierarchical organizations, exaggerate this tendency toward routine and use it to achieve organizational rationality. As Simon noted, organizations focus individuals’ attention and decompose complex tasks and problems so that one person can handle them. Practically speaking, organizations accomplish this by creating standard operating procedures. Although standard operating procedures allow individuals to function and cooperate at a high level, they also create the organizational inertia that Charles Lindblom noted. Routines put blinders on individuals, absorbing uncertainty but also reducing the information they receive and perceive. Routines—particularly, formal routines such as standard operating procedures—often become disconnected from the actual requirements of the job at hand and even from individuals’ immediate self-interest, because individuals become so accustomed and dependent on their routines that they literally cannot imagine doing without them. What used to be rational decision making becomes irrational in new circumstances.

Appropriate decision making

Moving to the opposite end of the theoretical spectrum from rational decision making, a more sociological approach emphasizes social context over economic rationality as the key to decision making. According to the logic of appropriateness, individuals consider their situation, evaluate their role in that situation, weigh actions according to their appropriateness, and finally do what is appropriate. Rational decision making assumes that individuals will act to maximize their preferences and engage in self-interested behaviour, but the logic of appropriateness assumes that individuals will conform to external rules—norms, routines, procedures, and roles—often without consciously realizing that they are making a decision. Individuals tend to do the right thing.

Appropriate decision making emphasizes the fit between the context, especially social norms and roles, and individuals’ perceptions, especially their self-perceptions. Behaviour follows from how individuals fit the nested contexts and roles they inhabit. Predicting behaviour is complicated because individuals inhabit many, many contexts and many roles. In any given situation, an individual must decide, even if subconsciously, which of several competing roles and related rules to apply. The key criterion is how appropriate the rule is to the situation.

James G. March and Johan P. Olsen showed how the logic of appropriateness inverts the causal logic of rational decision making. Individuals form opinions and make decisions to be appropriate in their surroundings, to fit in with those around them. This means that context precedes preference, and social interaction is more important than abstract self-interest. Instead of liking those we trust, we trust those we like. Instead of choosing our friends on the basis of what they value (“I like Carolyn because we both voted Democrat”), we choose our values to match with those we like (“I voted Democrat because I like Carolyn and she voted Democrat”). Of course, all decisions cannot be socially appropriate, and all preferences are not socially derived. But the first cause is social, rather than innate preference. Timing is important. Social contexts matter more when preferences are weak, as in childhood, or shaken, as during a crisis. Behaviours and structures will tend to replicate themselves as new members are socialized and internalize the preferences, values, norms, beliefs, and ideas of those around them.

Temporal decision making

Finally, some scholars studying organizations and observing real decision making saw so much disorder and randomness that they came to believe there is little consequential, logical order to decision making. Instead, they saw temporal order. Studying universities, they found problems, solutions, decision makers, and choice opportunities coming together as the result of being simultaneously available. Timing is key. Decisions are produced by happy accidents, when all the necessary ingredients can be combined.

In what has been called “garbage can processes,” problems, solutions, opportunities, and decision makers swirl around independent of each other within organized anarchies, which act only to contain them. Organizations are organized anarchies when they have problematic preferences, unclear technology, and fluid participation. In other words, in organized anarchies, members are unclear and inconsistent about what they want to do, how they are supposed to do it, and who should make which decisions. As a result, people, solutions, and problems are independent, and a decision is only made when the four are connected by timing and attention. Attention is the key resource, because most decisions are left unmade because no one is paying attention. Solutions search for problems, as people with pet ideas wait for the opportunity to spring them.