descent
descent, the system of acknowledged social parentage, which varies from society to society, whereby a person may claim kinship ties with another. If no limitation were placed on the recognition of kinship, everybody would be kin to everyone else; but in most societies some limitation is imposed on the perception of common ancestry, so that a person regards many of his associates as not his kin.
The practical importance of descent comes from its use as a means for one person to assert rights, duties, privileges, or status in relation to another person, who may be related to the first either because one is ancestor to the other or because the two acknowledge a common ancestor. Descent has special influence when rights to succession, inheritance, or residence follow kinship lines.
One method of limiting the recognition of kinship is to emphasize the relationships through one parent only. Such unilineal kinship systems, as they are called, are of two main types—patrilineal (or agnatic) systems, in which the relationships reckoned through the father are emphasized, and matrilineal (or uxorial) systems, in which the relationships reckoned through the mother are emphasized.
In systems of double unilineal descent, society recognizes both the patrilineage and the matrilineage but assigns to each a different set of expectations. For example, the inheritance of immovable materials, such as land, may be the domain of the patrilineage, while the matrilineage controls the inheritance of moveable objects such as livestock.
In ambilateral systems, patrilineal and matrilineal principles both operate at the societal level, but at the level of the individual various rules or choices define a person as belonging to either the mother’s or the father’s group. In some ambilateral systems, marriage broadens one’s choice of lineage to include those of one’s mother- or father-in-law. Bilateral or cognatic descent systems reckon kinship through the mother and the father more or less equally.
In practice, unilineal systems differ radically from bilateral systems. In a matrilineal system, for example, a person would feel cousin obligations only to the children of his mother’s siblings, while in a bilateral system the person is in some sense allied to the children of both parents’ siblings.
Interestingly, many cultures that notionally adhere to a given descent system have methods whereby the system can be abridged. Perhaps the most common of these is adoption, in which an individual gains a new kinship identity. Adoption varies widely across cultures; in some the adoptee abjures his previous kin group, while in others he gains new kin while retaining his original ties. A second method for abridging a descent system occurs when a unilineal group recognizes the cognatic kin of an individual for some specific purpose, such as the assumption of a leadership position. A third method is to alter the history, myths, or folklore of a descent group in order to expand or contract its membership.
