The prototype of the intuitive diviner is the shaman or curer who uses trance states. These are achieved idiopathically (i.e., arising spontaneously) or induced by drugs or by autokinetic (self-energized) techniques, such as hand trembling among the Navajo. As a mantic art, trance is associated with oracular utterance and spirit possession. An impressive performance will be taken to represent the actual voice of a god or spirit addressing the client directly; and divination in this mode is known from diverse religious traditions, including Christianity. The idea that the gods may be importuned to speak on a matter of temporal human concern seems to be very ancient. In early Egypt incubation was practiced—i.e., sleeping in the temple in the hope of being inspired by the resident god. The idea behind Mayan maiden sacrifice was the same: a number of maidens were cast into a sacred cenote, or deep well, and those who survived after some hours were brought back to recite the messages received during their ordeal—a virtual enactment of the journey into the underworld. As oracular utterance became regular, special techniques or contraptions were developed for making the god’s image show assent or denial or for amplifying the sound of an unseen priest’s voice. In nomadic societies today, however, the diviner may still achieve personal authority by passing into a trance before his fellows, trembling and speaking “as if possessed”—that is, as if his own spirit had ceased to inhabit his body and had been replaced by another.

Related to belief in possession is the conviction that malevolent persons are essentially unlike innocent ones, though not in outward appearance. When a test is devised for discovering malevolence, commonly conceived of as witchcraft or as a nonhuman force disguising itself in human form, the test takes the form of an ordeal. This may be a demonstration of invulnerability to harm, the presence of blessed qualities being viewed as inconsistent with malevolence; among the many types of ordeal are walking on coals and retrieving an object from boiling liquid. The ordeal may even involve death: in the ordeal by water, a witch was expected to float and so be spared for burning, but an innocent person would be accepted by the water and drown. In trans-Saharan poison ordeals the innocent person is expected to survive.

Intuitive divination may also be a wholly private affair. A Roman might hear a warning from the gods in a piece of conversation; the Aztec might discern a portent in an animal’s howl. A Native American who sought a private vision through isolation, self-mutilation, and fasting would preserve the memory of that vision throughout life, turning to it as his unique guardian spirit.

Divination at the end of the 20th century

The immense popularity of horoscopes in the urban West today illustrates the almost exclusive concern with individual fortune-telling that characterizes divination in a mobile and competitive mass society. Chiromancy, tarot (fortune-telling) cards, and crystal gazing represent respectively body divination, cleromancy (divination by lots), and trancelike performance in styles suitable for what might be called a half-serious attempt to learn one’s fate. Necromancy, in its modern spiritualist form, represents a slightly more serious and sustained effort to establish contact with extramundane beings. But astrology, in its various popular forms, is the form of divination best suited to mass consumption, since it is based on a well-articulated body of lore, touches matters of high destiny as well as individual fortune, and “personalizes” its advice without the client’s having to be interviewed. On the other hand, the more esoteric mantic arts have the appeal of discipline—an individual may enter into the lore deeply and make it a part of a personal worldview. Study of the I ching for divinatory purposes can involve this sort of commitment.