drainage
- Key People:
- Sir Cornelius Vermuyden
- Giovanni Maria Lancisi
drainage, in agriculture, the artificial removal of water from land. Drainage is employed in the reclamation of wetlands, in the prevention of erosion, and as a concomitant of irrigation in the agriculture of arid regions. Drainage can remove excess water from an area before it enters the soil, and thus it prevents leaching of nutrients and standing pools of water on the surface and can permit early spring planting. After excess water enters the soil, its removal is an expensive and specialized undertaking that is not directly connected with irrigation, although it sometimes may be necessary for irrigated land.
Irrigation and drainage improvements are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Often both may be required together to assure sustained high-level production of crops. Drainage construction can be used to prepare the land for surface irrigation, thus serving two purposes by one earthmoving operation. For a discussion of the role of irrigation practices in agriculture, see irrigation.
Modern drainage system planning and construction
Planning a drainage system
Drainage is an ancient practice, but apparently until recent times it was regarded as less important than irrigation. The first drains were most likely ditches for channeling floodwaters back to the rivers. The addition of linings of less porous materials greatly improved drainage efficiency. The most significant 20th-century development in drainage technology was the application of land-grading techniques to facilitate uniform runoff.
The planning and design of modern drainage systems is not an exact science. Although there have been many advances in soil and crop science, techniques have not been developed for combining the basic principles involved into precise designs. One of the primary reasons for difficulty in applying known theory is the capricious variability of the many factors that affect a drainage system, in contrast to the idealized settings required to develop a theory. Factors determining the most efficient drainage system design for a particular property include soil type, land configuration, amount and pattern of rainfall, and types of crops to be grown. Soils of high sand or silt content are generally suited to subsurface drainage, while soils of high clay content generally require surface systems.
The most important factor is the type of soil, which determines whether water will move through rapidly enough to use subsurface drainage. Soils that have a high percentage of sand- and silt-size particles and a low percentage of clay-size particles usually will transmit water rapidly enough to make subsurface drainage feasible. Soils that are high in clay-size particles usually cannot be drained by subsurface improvements. It is essential to consider soil properties to a depth of 1.5 to 1.8 metres (5 to 6 feet), because the layer in the soil that transmits water the slowest controls the design, and subsurface improvements may be installed to these depths.
The topography or slope of the land is also important. In many cases, land in need of drainage is so flat that a contour map showing elevations 30 cm (12 inches) or 15 cm (6 inches) apart is used to identify trouble spots and possible outlets for drainage water. Often an outlet can be developed only by collective community action. The rainfall patterns, the crops to be grown, and the normal height of the water table also are considered. If heavy rainfall is not probable during critical stages of crop growth, less extensive drainage improvements may suffice. The capacity of the system is governed in part by the growth pattern of the crop, its planting date, critical stages of growth, tolerance of excess water, harvest date, and value.
In some areas the normal water level in the soil is high, in others low; this variable is always investigated before a drainage system is planned.
Types of drainage systems
Drainage systems may be divided into two categories: surface and subsurface. Each has several components with similar functions but different names. At the lower, or disposal, end of either system is an outlet. In order of decreasing size, the components of a surface system are the main collection ditch, field ditch, and field drain, and the components of a subsurface system are the main, submain, and lateral conduits from the submain. The outlet is the point of disposal of water from the system; the main carries water to the outlet; the submain or field ditch collects water from a number of smaller units and carries it to the main; and the lateral or field drain, the smallest unit of the system, removes the water from the soil.
The outlet for a drainage system may be a natural stream or river or a large constructed ditch. A constructed ditch usually is trapezoidal in section with side banks flat enough to be stable. Grass may be grown on the banks, which are kept clear of trees and brush that would interfere with the flow of water.
The field drains vary in configuration according to topography, parallel drains being indicated for uniform surfaces and site-specific ones for areas of uneven accumulation. A surface drainage system removes water from the surface of the soil and to approximately the bottom of the field ditches. A surface system is the only means for drainage improvement on soils that absorb or transmit water slowly. Individual surface drains also are used to supplement subsurface systems by removing water from ponded areas.
The field drains of a surface system may be arranged in many patterns. Probably the two most widely used are parallel drains and random drains. Parallel drains are channels running parallel to one another at a uniform spacing of a few to several hundred metres apart, depending on the soil and the slope of the land. Random drains are channels that run to any low areas in the field. The parallel system provides uniform drainage, whereas the random system drains only the low areas connected by channels. In either case the channels are shallow with flat sides and may be farmed like the rest of the field. Crops are usually planted perpendicular to the channels so that the water flows between the rows to the channels.
Some land grading of the fields where surface drains are installed is usually essential for satisfactory functioning. Land grading is the shaping of the field so that the land slopes toward the drainage channels. The slope may be uniform over the entire field, or it may vary from part to part. Historically, the calculations necessary for planning land grading were time-consuming, a factor that restricted the alternatives available for final design. Today, computer models rapidly explore many possibilities before a final land grading design is selected.
In a subsurface drainage system, often called a tile system, all parts except the outlet are located below the surface of the ground. It provides better drainage than a surface system because it removes water from the soil to the depth of the drain, providing plants a greater mass of soil for root development, permitting the soil to warm up faster in the spring, and maintaining a better balance of bacterial action, the air in the soil, and other factors needed for maximum crop growth.
The smallest component of the subsurface system, the lateral, primarily removes water from the soil. The laterals may be arranged in either a uniform or random pattern. The choice is governed by the crop grown and its value, the characteristics of the soil, and the precipitation pattern.
The primary decision required for a system with uniform laterals is their depth and spacing. In general, the deeper the laterals can be emplaced, the farther apart they can be spaced for an equivalent degree of drainage. Laterals usually are spaced 24 to 91 metres (80 to 300 feet) apart and 0.9 to 1.5 metres (3 to 5 feet) deep.
Subsurface drainage systems are as important in many irrigated areas as they are in humid areas. A drainage system is needed on irrigated lands to control the water table and ensure that water will be able to move through a soil, thus keeping salts from accumulating in the root zone and making the soil unproductive.
Construction and maintenance
Most subsurface drains are constructed by excavating a trench, installing a tile, and backfilling the trench. Control of the machines to assure proper slope of the drain had been a major problem, but developments in excavation technology, including the use of laser beams for grade control, have helped to solve it. Traditionally, clay or concrete tile has been the principal material used, but many types of perforated plastic tubes are now employed. An advantage is the reduction in weight of the material handled.
With proper maintenance, drainage systems have a relatively long life. Selected herbicides are often applied to keep woody growth and water weeds out of the channels. Grates are usually installed over outlets to prevent rodents and burrowing animals from building nests.
Surface drainage systems need almost yearly maintenance to assure the slope and cross section of the channels and the slope of the graded areas, because the slopes are so flat that small changes in the ground surface can make marked changes in the ability of a system to function.
Subsurface systems need periodic inspection but usually require little servicing. The outlet of the system and infrequent structural failure of the material are the usual points for service.
Land reclamation
The continual need for increased food and fibre production requires the continued development of new agricultural lands and increased efficiency of existing agricultural areas. Development of new agricultural areas is rarely possible without irrigation or drainage systems or both. Easily recognized improvements are the large-scale river basin projects designed for flood control, irrigation, and power generation. Such projects are in various stages of design or construction in many countries of the world—for example, China, India, Egypt, Iran, Australia, and the United States. In almost all cases, drainage of the irrigated lands is considered a companion requirement. If possible, the drainage improvements are subsurface.
A combination of drainage and irrigation is used to reclaim large areas of land that have been abandoned because of salt accumulation. In this case, subsurface drainage systems must be installed so that high water tables are lowered and pure water flushed through the soil, dissolving the salts and carrying them away in the drainage water. Large areas in the United States, India, and the Middle East are potentially available for reclamation by this technique.
The people of the Netherlands have reclaimed land from the sea by the use of drainage. Since the IJsselmeer (formerly Zuiderzee) barrier dam was closed in 1932, converting this large body of water into a freshwater lake, the Dutch have been continually enclosing and reclaiming smaller bodies (polders). After dikes are built around a polder, the area is drained by pumping out the water. Drainage channels and, in many places, subsurface drains are installed so that the root zone of crops can be drained. After this, cropping is started as the last step in the reclamation process.
The development of land-clearing machinery and surface drainage techniques has made it possible to clear and drain tropical lands for agricultural production. The first step is the removal of trees, brush, and other tropical growth. Outlet ditches are constructed, followed by drains. In some cases, subsurface drains are possible, but more often the soils and rainfall conditions combine to make this improvement impractical. Surface drains are installed on a uniform pattern and the land is smoothed or graded. Drainage systems on newly reclaimed tropical land require special attention while the soils are stabilizing, and some reconstruction is often needed after the soil stabilization is complete.