History of drug control
- Related Topics:
- smoking
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- teetotalism
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The first major national efforts to control the distribution of narcotic and other dangerous drugs were the efforts of the Chinese in the 19th century. Commerce in opium poppy and coca leaf (cocaine) developed on an organized basis during the 1700s. The Qing rulers of China attempted to discourage opium importation and use, but the English East India Company, which maintained an official monopoly over British trade in China, was engaged in the profitable export of opium from India to China. This monopoly of the China trade was eventually abolished in 1839–42, and friction increased between the British and the Chinese over the importation of opium. Foreign merchants, including those from France and the United States, were bringing in ever-increasing quantities of opium. Finally, the Qing government required all foreign merchants to surrender their stocks of opium for destruction. The British objected, and the Opium War (1839–42) between the Chinese and the British followed. The Chinese lost and were forced into a series of treaties with England and other countries that took advantage of the British victory. Following renewed hostilities between the British and Chinese, fighting broke out again, resulting in the second Opium War (1856–60). In 1858 the importation of opium into China was legalized by the treaties of Tianjin, which fixed a tariff rate for opium importation. Further difficulties followed. An illegal opium trade carried on by smugglers in southern China encouraged gangsterism and piracy, and the activity eventually became linked with powerful secret societies in the south of China.
International controls
Throughout the 1800s the Chinese government considered opium an important moral and economic question, but obviously China needed international help. In 1909 U.S. Pres. Theodore Roosevelt proposed an international investigation of the opium problem; a meeting of 13 nations held in Shanghai in the same year resulted in recommendations that formed the basis of the first opium convention held at The Hague in 1912. Ratification of the Hague Convention occurred during the meetings of 1913 and 1914. Although further regulatory activity was suspended during the course of World War I, ratification of the Versailles peace treaties of 1919–20 also constituted a ratification of the Hague Convention of 1912. The League of Nations was then given responsibility to supervise agreements with regard to the traffic in opium and other dangerous drugs. A further important development in drug control was the convention of 1925, which placed further restrictions on the production and manufacture of narcotics. Six more international conventions and agreements were concluded between 1912 and 1936. Under a Protocol on Narcotic Drugs of December 1946 the functions of the League of Nations and of the Office International d’Hygiène Publique were transferred to the United Nations and to the World Health Organization. In 1948 a protocol extended the control system to synthetic and natural drugs outside the scope of the earlier conventions. In 1953 a further protocol was adopted to limit and regulate the cultivation of the poppy plant and the production of, or international and wholesale trade in, and use of opium. Before the protocol became operative in 1963 the international control organs found a need for codifying and strengthening the existing treaties, and a Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs was drawn up in New York in 1961. This Convention drew into one comprehensive control regime all the earlier agreements, limited the use of coca leaves and cannabis to medical and scientific needs, and paved the way for the International Narcotics Control Board. The Convention came into force in 1964, and the new board began duty in 1968. Later two other treaties, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971 and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988, came into existence. While a major function of the 1961 and 1971 treaties was to codify drug-control measures on an international level, all three served to prevent drug trafficking and drug abuse.
National controls
The United States is perhaps the country most preoccupied with drug control, and it is largely the countries that have mimicked the United States’ approach that have made narcotics regulation a matter of public policy with the consequent network of laws, criminal-detection agencies, and derived social effects. Principal U.S. legislation during the 20th century included the Harrison Narcotics Act of 1914, the Opium Poppy Control Act of 1942, and the Narcotic Drug Control Act of 1956; the Drug Abuse Control Amendment of 1965 added controls over depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogenic drugs not covered under the other narcotic control acts.
In 1970 the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act, which introduced the Controlled Substances Act (CSA), replaced the earlier laws overseeing the use of narcotics and other dangerous drugs in the United States. The CSA was implemented to control the prescription and dispensation of psychoactive drugs and hallucinogens. Under the CSA, a classification system with five schedules was created to identify drugs based on their potential for abuse, their applications in medicine, and their likelihood of producing dependence. According to this system, Schedule I drugs are substances with no legitimate medical use. These substances include LSD, heroin, and cannabis. Schedule II drugs, which include cocaine, opium, and morphine, have legitimate medical uses but are considered to have a high potential for abuse. Schedule III, IV, and V drugs all have legitimate medical uses but with decreasing potential for abuse. Many barbiturates, tranquilizers, and performance-enhancing drugs are Schedule III or higher. Some Schedule V drugs are sold over the counter.
The Comprehensive Act of 1970 enabled the United States to fulfill the obligations set forth by the international drug-control treaties. The CSA continues to serve as the primary legislation for drug control in the United States. Alcohol and tobacco, which are not included in the CSA schedule system, are regulated by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives and the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau.
Another major step in drug control in the United States was the creation of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in 1973. The DEA was a consolidation of the Bureau of Drug Abuse Control and the Bureau of Narcotics, both of which were involved in enforcing drug control in the 1960s. The increase in drug use during that decade, however, prompted U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon to combine the existing agencies into a single entity, thereby centralizing funds and efforts to control drug abuse. The DEA continues to serve a vital role in law enforcement and drug control in the United States.
In 1988 the Anti-Drug Abuse Act led to the creation of the Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP). The ONDCP establishes drug-control policy and sets national goals for reducing the illicit use and trafficking of drugs. It is also responsible for producing the National Drug Control Strategy (NDCS). The NDCS is designed to facilitate effective drug-control measures at local levels by providing information on drugs and drug abuse for community members and by making various resources for drug control available to local officials.
In Great Britain, legislation controlling the manufacture, distribution, and sale of narcotics has experienced substantial change and revision since the late 19th century. In 1971 the Misuse of Drugs Act (MDA), which has been amended multiple times but remains the country’s primary means of drug control, replaced the Dangerous Drug Act of 1965, which itself had replaced earlier legislation stemming from the 1912 Hague Convention. Similar to the CSA in the United States, the MDA uses a classification system to categorize the different drugs of abuse. The MDA, however, recognizes only three categories: Class A, Class B, and Class C, with substances such as heroin and LSD placed in Class A and substances such as tranquilizers and anabolic steroids placed in Class C. Similar to the CSA, the MDA does not list alcohol or tobacco as controlled substances.
Extent of contemporary drug abuse
Complete and reliable data on the extent of drug abuse for most countries is sparse. To specify the size and extent of the drug problem, accurate information as to manufacture, distribution, and sale of drugs is needed. Complete evaluation also requires knowledge of the incidence of habituation and addiction in the general population, the number of persons admitted to hospitals because of drug intoxication, and the number of arrests for drug sales that do not conform to the law. For countries lacking adequate drug-tracking organizations and technologies, this kind of determination is extraordinarily difficult.
Furthermore, in most cases of contemporary drug abuse, drug traffic is from uncontrolled, illicit sources, about which there is very little reliable information. Black market diversion of drugs may occur at any point from the manufacture of basic chemicals used to synthesize the drugs, through the process of actually preparing the drug, to the distribution of the final drug form to the retail drugstore or even to the physician. This is a complex chain involving chemical brokers, exporters, and dealers in addition to those more directly involved in drug production. Thus, anticipating which drugs will emerge and become problematic in any given year is difficult for drug enforcement agencies.
The extent of drug use in societies is generally monitored by a government-run organization. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), which is part of the U.S. National Institutes of Health, is tasked with conducting research on drug use in the United States. NIDA monitors trends in drug abuse primarily through the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) and the Monitoring the Future (MTF) survey (also called National High School Senior Survey). The MTF tracks drug use and attitudes toward drugs among students in the 8th, 10th, and 12th grades. The NSDUH tracks the prevalence of drug use among persons age 12 and older across the country. These surveys distinguish patterns in use of substances ranging from alcohol to cannabis to designer drugs such as PCP. This information is shared with the DEA, assisting the agency in monitoring drug supplies, trafficking, and diversion. In Europe, data on the extent of drug use in individual countries is organized and maintained by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). The information provided by the EMCDDA is used by the European Union and its member states to assess the extent of drug use across the region and to identify patterns of drug flow between countries.
Drug abuse patterns change over a relatively short time. For example, in the 1960s the designer drug LSD became popular in the hippie subculture, being used to increase the level of consciousness. Only a short time earlier, youthful drug abuse had involved only the hypnotics and alcohol, which depress consciousness and blunt experience. From the late 20th century, abuse of opioids, including heroin, prescription pain relievers, and synthetic opioids (e.g., fentanyl), was on the rise globally. In the United States, opioid addiction became a national crisis; in 2015 alone an estimated 2,000,000 Americans abused opioid drugs and more than 33,000 died from opioid overdose.
Because of the work of organizations such as NIDA and EMCDDA, researchers investigating patterns of drug abuse have been able to identify shifts in drug abuse trends similar to the sudden rise in popularity of LSD in the 1960s and the rise of opioid addiction in the 21st century. This information is used to improve drug abuse prevention programs and to inform drug policy.