Greece and Rome

In Archaic Greece (c. 650–480 bce), Hades is an underworld god, a chthonic personification of death whose realm, divided from the land of the living by a terrible river, resembles the Mesopotamian land of the dead. The house of Hades is a labyrinth of dark, cold, and joyless halls, surrounded by locked gates and guarded by the hellhound Cerberus. Hell’s queen, Persephone, resides there a prisoner. This somber picture is confirmed in Homer’s Odyssey. When Odysseus visits Hades to consult the seer Tiresias in Book 11, he finds its inhabitants sunk into a witless oblivion, incapable of communicating with him until they drink from his libation of ram’s blood. The untimely dead and the improperly buried suffer more than do common shades, and notorious sinners such as Tantalus and Sisyphus are tormented for their crimes; nonetheless, the Homeric Hades is, generally speaking, indifferently unpleasant for all.

In the late Archaic period, however, Greek traditions began to envision a greater divergence of paths in the afterlife. The mysteries of Demeter at Eleusis, among other esoteric cults, claimed that adherents would enjoy a heavenly immortality, while those outside the cult would sink into the gloom of Hades. The cult of Dionysus represented Hades as a place of torment from which only initiates could escape; there, according to some ancient traditions, Persephone punished humankind for the death of her son, Dionysus. The Orphic movement (so called for its association with the hero Orpheus, who ventured into Hades and returned to earth) spun vivid accounts of judgment, retribution, and metempsychosis. Adherents were taught that life on the “sorrowful, weary wheel” of recurring birth and death itself was a kind of hell. Gold tablets found buried in graves throughout Greece and southern Italy, dating back to the 4th century bce, offer an Orphic account of the geography of the otherworld, warning the deceased to shun the waters of forgetfulness and to recite the passwords that admit one to the company of the blessed. Philosophers and moralists such as Plato and Cicero found in these myths and mysteries rich material for reflection on the nature of justice and the value of disciplined detachment from the material world.

Throughout the Classical (c. 500–323 bce) and Hellenistic (323–30 bce) periods and during the long span of the Roman Empire, Mediterranean societies played host to a profusion of eschatological teachings in which the underworld was increasingly “infernalized,” its hellish dimensions explored, and its moral implications exploited. While Odysseus travels no farther than the entrance to the underworld, Virgil, the Roman author of the Aeneid, sends Aeneas through Sibyl’s cave by the shores of the foul-smelling Lake of Averno, across the River Styx on Charon’s ferry, past the three-headed dog Cerberus, and from there down the labyrinthine path as it forks right to the torture fields of Tartarus and left to the Elysian fields of the blessed. Virgil’s hell includes special compartments for infants and suicides and specific punishments for specific crimes, but the ordinary dead, who merit neither a hero’s reward nor a scoundrel’s punishment, remain unaccounted for. Further attention to the structure of hell came during the first centuries of the Common Era, as a rising tide of eschatological thinking, fed by currents of thought from western Asia, swept through the Roman world.

Iranian and Zoroastrian eschatology

Among the Aryan peoples who migrated to the Iranian plateau in the middle of the 2nd millennium bce, a priestly sacrificial religion arose which held that the world is the field of incessant struggle between the ahuras (gods of light, purity, and order) and the daevas (demons of darkness, pollution, and disorder). This dualist cosmology provided the foundation for Zoroastrianism, the prophetic religion of Zoroaster (before the 6th century bce), which proclaimed the coming triumph of Ahura Mazdā (“Wise Lord”) and his angelic retinue over Ahriman (“Destructive Spirit”), prince of the powers of evil. Zoroastrian end-time accounts describe the coming of one or more cosmic saviours, the resurrection of the dead, a final passage through purgatorial rivers of molten metal, and a resounding defeat of all the demonic powers. The Zoroastrian hell is presided over by Yima, the first victim of death, and is home to all that is evil, dark, corrupt, cold, and hostile to life. The demons who dwell there take delight in torturing sinners; but since evil is destined to be utterly vanquished, hell itself will be destroyed with the restoration of Ahura Mazdā’s good creation.

During the interval between death and resurrection, there is a preliminary judgment in which the dead have their deeds weighed in a balance. At the time of judgment, the dead confront their conscience in personified form on a symbolic bridge, from which they fall into hell to be tortured, pass to heaven for blissful reward, or enter the limbolike realm of the “mixed,” which is reserved for those of neutral merit. In the influential 9th-century apocalypse, Ardā Wirāz Nāmag, an Iranian priest takes a visionary tour of these otherworldly realms and returns with a harrowing report; the torments of hell, even if not eternal, are dreadful enough to have a powerful deterrent effect.

Judaism

In the Hebrew Bible, Sheol (Sheʾōl) is a place of darkness, silence, and dust to which the spirit, or vital principle, descends at death. It is likened to a vast house whose entrance is guarded, like family burial sites, by gates and iron bolts; to a prison in which the dead are held captive by strong cords; to an insatiable beast with spreading jaws; and also to a watery abyss. Once in Sheol, the dead are cut off from their living kin and from cultic relationship to God. Yet God retains his sovereignty over Sheol, searching out the evildoers who hide in its depths, preserving or delivering the just from Sheol’s grasp, and, ultimately, as later apocalyptic and rabbinic texts make explicit, restoring the dead to life.

At least in the postexilic portions of the Hebrew Bible (those written after the Babylonian captivity), death does not hold the same fate for all. The unjust, the improperly buried, and the untimely dead endure the misery of Sheol, but, for those who die in God’s favour, the natural bitterness of death is mitigated by reunion with their ancestors. Late prophetic books, concerned with the vindication of God’s justice, warn of a coming “Day of the Lord” in which the wicked will be burned up like stubble (Malachi 4:1), the corpses of God’s enemies will suffer endless corruption (Isaiah 66:24), and evildoers who have died will be resurrected to “shame and everlasting contempt” (Daniel 12:2) while the just enjoy the fulfillment of God’s promises. In some postbiblical Jewish writings, Gehenna, the incineration ground where children had once been sacrificed to the god Moloch, emerges as a realm of postmortem punishment more like hell than Sheol. In Gehenna the unjust dead would suffer a fiery torment of duration and severity proportionate to their crimes.

During the period from the Maccabee wars (168–164 bce) to the compilation of the Mishnah (early 3rd century ce), writers increasingly speculated about the afterlife, producing apocalypses that featured dramatic visionary journeys through heaven and hell. The First Book of Enoch, an important collection of pseudepigraphic revelations, describes in vivid detail both the eternal abyss of fire where fallen angels will be imprisoned after the final battle and the “plague and pain” to be visited upon wretched souls. At the same time, Jewish philosophers and mystics emphasized the spiritual character of the future life, interpreting Gehenna as a redemptive fire which burns away the soul’s impurities in order to restore its original perfection. A spiritualized conception of the soul’s journey after death flourished alongside the rabbinic doctrine of resurrection and judgment at the end of time, and the two models were often combined. The focus of traditional Jewish eschatology, now as in the past, is on the messianic age, when the world will be remade into a dwelling place fit for the Divine Presence. To forfeit one’s share in the world to come is the greatest of all calamities, to which hellfire, whether physical or spiritual, pales in comparison.