While British social anthropologists examined the functions of various social rules and institutions and French structuralists used the regularities that underlay those features in a search for the origins of humanity, American cultural anthropologists explored the idea that behavior is ordered by social categories. This understanding, begun with Morgan in the 19th century, was exemplified by the works of Alfred Kroeber and Robert H. Lowie in the early 20th century, and continued with George Peter Murdock’s mid-20th-century attempts to construct a typology of relationship terminologies.
From Kroeber and Lowie onward, these analyses drew from the work of linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, who posited that people understand the world through the lens of language—that is, that vocabulary, grammar, metaphor, and the like literally shape one’s experience of objective reality. Kin terminology, as an aspect of language, was thought to demonstrate how language shaped social categories and hence actual practices.
The study of kin terminology, however, developed into an increasingly technical area that had more in common with linguistics than with the study of everyday practices of kinship. During the 1950s and ’60s such work reached its apex: the formal analysis of systems of classification on the basis of their different component distinctions within a semantic domain (or the building blocks of meaning in a given field), a process that became known as “componential analysis.” In the United States particularly, anthropologists used this mode of analysis in a variety of domains ranging from kinship terminologies to ethnoscience (as with indigenous plant classification schemes). Classification was seen as a key component of the study of meaning and, as such, a central aspect of culture.
As anthropologists no longer assume an intrinsic connection between terminology and practice, the relative importance of the formal study of kin classification in Britain and the United States has declined. It remained an important theme in French anthropology, however. Françoise Héritier in particular developed Lévi-Strauss’s earlier work linking terminology systems to particular forms of alliance on the basis of their association with various rules governing marriage.
Historical materialism and instrumentality
Once the debate between advocates of alliance and those of descent no longer seemed so salient, kinship began to be “reread” in a variety of ways. Some of these rereadings were inspired by the Marxist critique of anthropology in the 1960s and ’70s and especially by the approach known as historical materialism. Here households, lineages, and other kin-based groups were examined as units of production; property was seen as the basis of relations; and class and social change were placed at the center of research. Historical materialists drew inspiration from the earlier work of Morgan and of Marx and Engels on precapitalist society. In this sense such studies had either an explicit or an implicit evolutionary flavor; they analyzed kinship as a mode for structuring property relations and saw kinship and property institutions as central to the transition from precapitalist to capitalist and class-based society.
During the 1970s and ’80s some studies highlighted the economic significance of kinship but began to view as central its more instrumental and strategic aspects—that is, the ways that one or a few individuals could use kinship to advance their personal interests. The work of Pierre Bourdieu, particularly his Outline of a Theory of Practice (1977), was especially influential. Bourdieu suggested that scholarly attention to rules may be misplaced, noting that they are often used to explain behavior rather than to direct it; in other words, people often invoke rules only in retrospect, to rationalize actions they have already taken. A related insight was that kinship and the economy were often inseparable from each other; they were “mutually embedded” in the phraseology of the era. This implied that kinship could not be reduced purely to its economic or instrumental aspects. However, many scholars attempted to separate the various component parts of kinship in order to aid in its analysis, and their research tended toward rather reductionist accounts of the ways in which individual actors strategize or manipulate rules to achieve particular ends.
Households, residence rules, and house societies
During the 1960s and ’70s another direction pursued in kinship studies involved the foregrounding of residence and the household as crucial dimensions of kinship. Marriage often entails a change of residence for one or both partners, and this approach reflected a concern with the interaction between property or economic relations and marriage rules. It was also spurred by research on societies in Polynesia and Southeast Asia in which kinship was reckoned bilaterally rather than unilineally. Finally, studies highlighting residential arrangements were more able than previous approaches to incorporate other anthropological concerns such as gender, rules about symbolic and practical divisions of space, inheritance practices, informal domestic relations, and subjective and experiential aspects of place.
Meyer Fortes had already highlighted the significance of the cyclical aspects of residential arrangements. His work demonstrated the ways in which the household passed through various developmental stages as people married, had children, and grew old and as their children matured, married, and had children, triggering the division of the original domestic group. In one sense Fortes’s outline of what was called “the developmental cycle of the domestic group” showed the movement and flux inherent in kinship arrangements. From another perspective, however, the stages he posited provided a rather static framework for considering the dynamic aspects of the growth and development of kinship groups. The stages themselves, and the overall cycle, seemed curiously isolated from historical and political changes in the world around them.
The British anthropologist Jack Goody’s comparative work on marriage, inheritance, and the household in Europe, Africa, and Asia drew from these earlier studies but expanded Fortes’s premise so as to examine the effect of major historical changes on property transfers and familial relations. In this sense Goody’s work provided a link to the work of a group of historians of the family who were based at the University of Cambridge. This group analyzed historical records, and in particular parish records, to document shifts in inheritance practices and residential arrangements in the European family. About the same time, Raymond Firth used examples from Polynesian cultures to demonstrate how residence could combine with descent to provide a basis for social organization in the absence of unilineal descent groups.
All these scholars were concerned mainly with structural aspects of residence—the relations between marriage rules, property transfers, and the constitution of domestic groups. Residence also came to the fore in studies that had a different intellectual origin. In the late 1970s Lévi-Strauss returned to kinship, but this time in a less structuralist guise. He became interested in societies in which the most prominent institutions of kinship did not fit the models provided by either descent or alliance theory.
Looking first at the Kwakiutl of North America and then at a range of societies, some of which were historical examples, from Europe to Indonesia to Japan, he showed how the house itself emerged in these contexts as a prominent social institution. In these societies, houses were named entities (as with the well-known royal houses of Europe, such as the house of Orange or the house of Windsor) that functioned as corporations, possessing material and symbolic wealth and preserving it through inheritance. Lévi-Strauss suggested that in these examples the house was a kind of intermediate institution that took its place between societies that were organized through kinship and those where social organization was based on class. He coined the term sociétés à maison, “house societies,” to denote this particular social formation.
Lévi-Strauss’s writing on the house was criticized by some as a throwback to evolutionary anthropology. His work was also criticized for his tendency to try to abstract a social typology of the house society from the diverse characteristics of houses within the various societies he analyzed. Nevertheless, Lévi-Strauss inspired a significant body of anthropological work that pays close attention to the social meanings of the house, as well as to its functions and the core activities that take place in and around it.
While some of this work displays a structuralist influence, it also provided an avenue for the exploration of new themes and illuminated old ones in new ways. Gender and domestic relations, marriage, the roles of children, the complexities of provisioning and feeding residents and visitors, and the symbolic division of space are just some of the areas opened up by a focus on the house in the study of kinship. These have encouraged a different way of studying kinship itself, putting a focus on its more experiential and emotional aspects and on the idea that kinship is an ongoing creation or process rather than a set of relations acquired ready-made at birth. The study of the house thus linked to work on related themes—most obviously, property and gender relations. But it also connected with studies of the role of place in the making of kinship, the study of material culture more generally, and the significance of objects and landscape in the relations people make with each other.
Culturalist accounts
As noted above, while anthropologists had made the study of kinship in non-Western cultures their particular preserve, the study of modern kinship in the West was on the whole dominated by sociologists. It was assumed by many practitioners of both disciplines that kinship was far less important as a social institution in the West and that it was clearly separable from political, economic, and religious life. The 20th-century Western family was viewed as an essentially private, domestic institution dominated by women and without wider political significance. Sociological and historical studies of the Western family tended to concentrate on its economic and instrumental aspects, including the transfer of property at marriage and through inheritance, rather than its ideological or experiential qualities. This version of Western kinship was overturned partly by feminist studies, which subjected relations within the household, the control of property, and the concept of privacy to a sustained analytic scrutiny. The notion of the “private” world of the family as a haven from the “public” world of work and competitive economic relations emerged as an ideological construct that was itself a suitable object of analysis.
Among the first anthropologists to explore kinship in the West were Raymond Firth and his colleagues, who published accounts of kinship in London from the 1950s onward. In the 1960s and ’70s the British anthropologists Edmund Leach and Audrey Richards led students in fieldwork in an Essex village, the results of which were later published by another British anthropologist, Marilyn Strathern. The American anthropologist David Schneider’s American Kinship (1968) is generally acknowledged as one of the first important anthropological studies of kinship in a 20th-century industrialized setting. Rather than taking the ideological basis of kinship for granted or assuming it to be of less importance than strategic interests related to status and property, Schneider examined kinship as a cultural system that is based in shared symbols and meanings. This form of analysis became known as the culturalist approach.
Schneider suggested that blood was the core symbol of kinship in the United States. He characterized kin ties as bonds of “diffuse, enduring solidarity”—a phrase that carried faint echoes of Fortes’s axiom of amity. Kin solidarity was derived from a combination of two sources: relationship as “natural substance” and relationship as “code for conduct.” These in turn arose from two opposed orders in American culture—the order of nature and the order of law. Here Schneider was making an opposition between American cultural perceptions of the “natural” basis of kinship, which he posited lay in blood (genetic) ties, and of the legally enshrined code for conduct that regulated marital ties. Some relations, such as that between husband and wife, existed only in law, while others, such as that between an unacknowledged illegitimate child and its father, existed only by virtue of nature. Relations between “blood kin” derived from a combination of both.
Schneider’s rendering of the cultural meaning of American kinship was immensely powerful, but it was also somewhat simplistic. Although his fieldwork had been carried out amid the ethnic and social diversity of urban Chicago, the vision of kinship that emerged was quite homogenized. Schneider wrote of how “Americans” understood kinship—without differentiating for class, gender, age, or ethnicity. Critics (including Schneider himself in later years) emphasized that, in contrast to this monolithic characterization of American culture, individual participants would in fact have articulated different versions of kinship and its meanings depending on their particular position in American society as well as their own life histories.
By dismissing this degree of cultural normativity as implausible in advanced capitalist societies, critics of American Kinship spurred a realization among anthropologists that their analyses of non-Western peoples had assumed similarly unrealistic degrees of cultural homogeneity. Such assumptions became increasingly untenable and more or less politically suspect among anthropologists, whether they worked in postcolonial or Western contexts.
Despite these initial problems, the endeavor to explicate kinship as a symbolic system of meanings that carries over into other ideological spheres (such as religion) had a strong influence on subsequent studies. Many later accounts of kinship, both in Western and in non-Western societies, have retained the core of the culturalist approach while also paying close attention to local experiences and understandings of kinship and providing nuanced depictions of how people in a given culture might have divergent understandings of kinship depending on their age, sex, ethnicity, personal experiences, or other attributes. Many culturalist studies have tried to show how these qualities and the perspectives they may engender articulate with each other—that is, to explain how and why particular combinations of these attributes (e.g., middle-aged, middle-class, black father or elderly, working-class, white mother) create particular or characteristic points of view. In the early 21st century, culturalist research also included the examination of the relationship between kinship and nationalism and the ways in which the ideologies of kinship can be co-opted for political purposes.