In Anglo-American countries judicial decisions, legislation, and legal ethics generally forbid a lawyer to testify about confidential communications between himself and his client unless the client consents. Provisions regarding confidentiality are also found in such diverse legal systems as those of Japan, Germany, and Russia. In countries in which the attorney’s obligation to protect state interests is given relatively greater emphasis, there may be a duty to disclose information when it is deemed to be to the state’s advantage.

Advertising and solicitation

Traditionally, advertising by lawyers was forbidden almost everywhere. It was a long-standing principle of legal ethics in Anglo-American countries that an attorney must not seek professional employment through advertising or solicitation, direct or indirect. The reasons commonly given were that seeking employment through these means lowers the tone of the profession, that it leads to extravagant claims by attorneys and to unrealistic expectations on the part of clients, and that it is inconsistent with the professional relationship that should exist between attorney and client. A more basic reason appears to have been the social necessity of restraining the motive of personal gain and of stressing the objective of service.

This situation changed in 1977, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that lawyers could not be barred from advertising their fees. The American Bar Association subsequently revised its code of ethics to include provisions and guidelines for advertising and suggested that lawyers limit their advertising to basic information about services and fees. Within narrow limits the same trend has made itself felt in England, though attorneys are still prohibited from such self-promotion in some countries on the Continent.

Fees

In principle, attorneys are ethically enjoined to keep their fees reasonable, neither too high nor too low. Attempts to control fees have included the passage of general statutes designed to regulate compensation for legal services of all sorts, as in Germany; the imposition of fees by courts in contentious matters, as in England and Wales; and the establishment of advisory fee schedules by the legal profession, as in Canada, France, Spain, and Japan. In the United States, local bar associations sometimes enforced minimum fee schedules through disciplinary proceedings; however, the U.S. Supreme Court held in 1975 that such practices violated antitrust laws.

The legal profession in the United States has traditionally recognized an obligation to serve poor clients without compensation. The vast extent of the task, however, has prompted the development of paid legal services for the poor, such as through legal aid societies and public defenders. Since the late 20th century legal-aid services have grown significantly in many countries. In Germany legal insurance plans are widespread, and they have also begun to appear in the United States.

Fees that are contingent on the successful outcome of litigation or settlement are widely used in the United States, particularly in automobile-accident and other negligence cases, and they are accepted as ethical by the U.S. legal profession. The fee is usually an agreed percentage (typically 20 to 40 percent) of the recovery. The justification given is that this arrangement makes the courts accessible to persons who would otherwise be unable for financial reasons to press their claims. But contingent fees give the attorney a financial stake in the outcome of litigation—which is ordinarily frowned upon. The converse consideration may be that in this type of case, where the outcome is difficult to predict, the lawyer also assumes the risk of losing his fee. Furthermore, although free legal aid has removed the need for a poor person to enter into such a transaction, legal aid is not available to persons who are not poor but are not wealthy enough to engage in extended litigation. In countries other than the United States contingent fees are, nevertheless, generally prohibited. Nor are they permitted in the United States in criminal and divorce cases, in cases to secure a pardon, or in the enactment of legislation.

Criminal cases

Both the prosecution and the defense of criminal cases raise special ethical issues. The prosecutor represents the state, and the state has an interest not only in convicting the guilty but also in acquitting the innocent. The prosecutor also has an ethical and, in considerable measure, a legal duty to disclose to the defense any information known to him and unknown to the defense that might exonerate the defendant or mitigate the punishment. He must not employ trial tactics that may lead to unfair convictions, nor should he prosecute merely to enhance his political prospects.

The defense counsel has different concerns. Under Anglo-American law an accused may compel the state to prove that he is guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. The defense counsel, therefore, becomes ethically obligated to require the state to produce such proof, whether or not the attorney believes his client to be guilty. His client’s guilt is for the tribunal to determine. The attorney may not, however, deliberately resort to perjured or other false testimony. Similar principles hold in civil-law countries. When the client, against the attorney’s advice, insists on testifying falsely, the ethical course to be pursued has not been fully settled. Some maintain that the attorney should withdraw, if possible, or else merely permit the client to testify without aiding him or asserting the truth of the testimony given.

Globalization

Although economic globalization has contributed in important ways to the worldwide growth of the legal profession, it has also created the potential for conflict between different ethical traditions. In Europe, for example, standards of confidentiality for in-house counsel differ from those observed by independent attorneys, a fact that has created difficulties for some U.S.-trained lawyers working for European firms. In China the rapidly increasing market for legal services has attracted legal professionals from democratic countries, which generally do not share the Chinese conception of an attorney’s public obligations. It is likely that these kinds of challenges will be intensified by the continuing liberalization of the international legal market and by the development of technologies that enable lawyers to give advice from their offices to clients in distant and very different jurisdictions. Unfortunately, the legal professions of most countries have so far failed to develop rules to address ethical issues arising from globalization. One exception is the Council of Bars and Law Societies of Europe, which has taken steps toward a common set of principles for legal professionals in the member states of the European Union.