Elements and forces of nature
The natural forces of fire and water, which evidently exclude each other, are brought together in a unity of opposites in the worldviews of early archaic civilizations. Both forces are purifying as well as protective and are viewed by many as being connected with the cosmic powers of the sun and moon. Where they are truly combined, often genetically, fire (as the sun) is usually male, and water (as the moon) female. Where the fire is included more into the chthonic (earthly) sphere, it may also receive a feminine character (e.g., fire in the earth, preserved in the womb); where rain is viewed as the semen of heaven, which is usually personified as male, it takes on a male character.
Water
Many of the qualities of water make it appear to be animated; on this basis it is psychologically understandable that water (e.g., rain, sea, lakes, and rivers) might become a natural phenomenon worthy of worship. Water is always in motion, changes colour in the light of the stars, reflects the world, “speaks” with murmuring and roaring, brings new life to dry vegetation, refreshes living creatures, including the tired and the ill, and heals. Because it dissolves dirt, water is also most suitable for purifying the soul (e.g., after the violation of a taboo or the commission of a sin of any kind). Under certain circumstances, even icons have to be washed. Water also demonstrates destructive forces (seaquakes, floods, and storms). The most important mythical-religious facts symbolized by water are the following: the primal matter, the instrument of purification and expiation, a vivifying force, a fructifying force, and a revealing and judging instrument.
Water as primal matter
The conception of a primal body of water from which everything is derived is especially prevalent among peoples living close to coasts or in river areas—e.g., the Egyptian Nu (the primordial ocean) and the Mesopotamian Apsu (the primeval watery abyss) and Tiamat (the primeval chaos dragon). The earth may be fished out or emerges from the primeval water; heavenly beings (e.g., Ataentsik, ancestress of the Iroquois) appear on the emerged earth; and birds lay an egg that is later divided into two halves (heaven and earth) on the chaotic sea. Thus, water is viewed as the foundation of all things. A survival of the original primeval sea in such myths is the water that flows around the earth’s disk (e.g., Oceanus).
Water as an instrument of purification and expiation
Water is viewed as an instrument of purification and expiation, especially in arid areas. Cultic acts in such areas generally take place only after lustrations—sprinkling with water or immersion in it. The same view holds true for entry into new communities or into life (e.g., baptism). Water lustration is especially necessary after touching the dead and as a purificatory washing for priests and kings. Pictures of the gods also are sometimes anointed with water.
Myths of a great flood (the Deluge) are widespread over Eurasia and America. This flood, which destroys with a few exceptions a disobedient original population, is an expiation by the water, after which a new type of world is created.
Water as a vivifying force
Water is viewed as vivifying, like the heavenly rainwater that moistens the earth. Water also is equated with the flowing life forces of the body (e.g., blood, sweat, and semen). In order to replace the lost liquids, water was added to the mummified dead in Egypt. The African Asante designate their patrilinear groups as ntoro, which means “water,” “river,” and “semen,” and the Wogeo of Papua New Guinea call their patrilinear clans dan—i.e., both water and semen.
Water as fructifying
Wherever early archaic culture spread the myth of heaven and earth as the world parents, there also was a belief that heaven fructifies the earth with heaven’s seed. The springs, pools, and rivers on the earth, therefore, may bring not only healing and expiation but also fertility. The Scamander River (now Turkey’s Küçükmenderes Çayı) in ancient Greece evidently was so personified; according to Aeschines, a 4th-century-bce Greek orator, girls bathed in it before marrying and said: “Scamander, accept my virginity.” Magical rites in which water serves as a substitute for semen or the fertility of men are numerous.
In Cameroon the Bamessing corn festival (Nsiä), which is celebrated in the dry season, opens with the mourning of the dead vegetation. Reminiscent of the Egyptian Osiris and the Mesopotamian Tammuz festivals, Nsiä emphasizes that the god who gave the nourishment has died and is being mourned like a chieftain. The chief, dying symbolically with the god, has to be strengthened with a miraculous “chieftain water,” which has to be fetched by virgins of the chieftain’s clan. For two weeks the chieftain drinks from the gourds of all the maidens after the women of the tribe have drunk from the holy water place.
Battles of gods and heroes with mythical beings, beasts, and monsters that hold back the fructifying water are widespread in mythology. The liberation of water during the mythical battle is equivalent to the end of the dry season or a drought, to the reviving of vegetation. In Indian mythology Indra slays Urtra; in Syrian and Palestinian mythology Baal battles with Leviathan; and in Huron mythology Joskeha, the spring hero, kills the frog that attempted to restrict the free flow of water.
Water as a revealing or judging instrument
In some cultures water serves as an instrument that reveals and judges. Reflections in the water led to a whole series of oracles originating from an alleged prophetic or divinatory power of water. A visionary look into the water surface was believed to reveal the future as well as past misdeeds. This ancient custom may have been preserved in the use of crystal balls by modern fortune-tellers. The custom of water divination is found in ancient Europe, North Africa, the Middle East (e.g., Babylonian fortune-telling by means of cups), eastern and northern Asia (where the use of metal mirrors by the shamans often replaces the water as a divining means), and Southeast Asia and Polynesia. Where such means of divination were severely repressed, as in sub-Saharan Africa, these methods of mirror- and water-gazing were changed into manipulated water ordeals. Water is used as a judging element in ordeals believed to demonstrate the judgment of the gods—water ordeals (e.g., immersion in water), as well as the more frequent fire ordeals. There, too, the purifying character of the water plays a role.