neuroethics
neuroethics, the study of the ethical, legal, and social implications of neuroscience and neurotechnology, as well as the neurobiological basis of human ethical norms and individual moral values. Neuroethics is an independent and highly interdisciplinary field, overlapping with subject areas such as bioethics, philosophy of mind, neuroscience, psychiatry, psychology, artificial intelligence (AI), anthropology, and law.
Origin and scope
It is widely recognized that neuroethics formally originated at an academic conference, Neuroethics: Mapping the Field, held in San Francisco in 2002. At this gathering the American journalist William Safire (1929–2009) offered the first definition of neuroethics: “the examination of what is right and wrong, good and bad about the treatment of, perfection of, or unwelcome invasion of and worrisome manipulation of the human brain.”
Understood in this way, neuroethics would deal with the ethical repercussions of advances in neuroscience and could therefore be considered a field of bioethics, itself a branch of applied ethics. However, in her seminal article “Neuroethics for the New Millenium [sic]” (2002), the American philosopher Adina Roskies suggested that the ethics of neuroscience be accompanied by a neuroscience of ethics—that is, by the study of the neurobiological bases of ethics and morality in human beings. According to this twofold perspective, neuroethics is not reducible to bioethics but overlaps with it, as well as with the sciences that concern the nervous system and the several social sciences—especially psychology, anthropology, and law.
Although Roskies’s approach was dominant within neuroethics from the beginning, in “Towards a Philosophy for Neuroethics” (2007), the Swedish philosopher Kathinka Evers proposed an additional method of exploration, the so-called fundamental neuroethics, which involves developing theoretical frameworks about issues traditionally studied in the philosophy of mind—such as consciousness, the self, and subjective experience—with the aim of applying them to ethical problems in the context of neuroscience.
The ethics of neuroscience and neurotechnology
A central research topic in neuroethics is the ethical issues raised by the brain sciences as well as by the use of neurotechnologies, or technologies employed to monitor or modify the nervous system’s structure or activity. Such issues originate from various domains and perspectives.
The limits of consciousness
Empirical and theoretical research on the nature and limits of consciousness raises a host of ethical questions, including:
- Brain death: Is brain death equivalent to the death of a person? Should either brain death or cardiac death be used as the legal criterion to consider a person deceased? Is it ethically permissible to preserve the isolated brain of a dead person in the hope of reviving the person’s consciousness in the future?
- Brain organoids (small, laboratory-created aggregates of neurons that mimic brain structure and function): Can brain organoids harbor consciousness? And, if so, should it be permissible to use brain organoids for research purposes?
- Consciousness in other living beings: What moral standing should be granted to other beings—especially the higher animals—considering the nature of their consciousness? How would this status affect animal research and animal rights?
Brain data and mental privacy
Studies of brain structure and function through brain scanning and other neurotechnologies can provide highly sensitive information. Such data may be revealing not only of a person’s mental and physical health but also of aspects of a person’s mental life that are properly considered private, such as personality traits, emotional states, and even specific thoughts or memories. For that reason, the neuroscientific community has called for clear guidelines to regulate the collection, analysis, and use of brain data.
Autonomy, identity, and integrity
The use of neurotechnologies that modulate brain activity—especially brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), in which the brain directly communicates with a computer or AI device—poses a challenge to traditional ways of understanding certain fundamental states or qualities that are essential to a meaningful human life. When individuals receive brain stimulation or are attached to a BCI, they effectively allow their autonomy, identity, and physical or psychological integrity to be compromised, surrendered, or violated by a machine.
Cognitive and moral enhancement
The term neuroenhancement denotes the use of neurotechnologies to increase the cognitive and moral abilities of a healthy person. While cognitive enhancement (or augmentation) is used to improve faculties such as attention and memory, moral enhancement focuses on personal motivations by modulating levels of aggressiveness and empathy.
Advocates of neuroenhancement argue that it is not substantially different from other nontechnological forms of enhancement (such as education), that it is desirable to try to improve the human species, and that a person’s decision to pursue self-enhancement amounts to an exercise and augmentation of personal autonomy. In contrast, some detractors believe that neuroenhancement contradicts the essence of what it means to be human to the extent that it leads to forced evolution of the human species contrary to either natural or divine laws. Others contend that this practice could create or expand inequalities of ability between enhanced and nonenhanced humans and that the latter would feel compelled to enhance themselves in order to effectively compete with the former.
Neurodiversity
Advocates of so-called neurodiversity argue that there is no single proper brain function. According to this view, people with autism, Down syndrome, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), or other related conditions should not be viewed as lacking in abilities. To the contrary, human beings as a whole exhibit a spectrum of neurological characteristics, none of which should be understood as healthy, normal, or standard.
Certain neurotechnologies, including brain scanning, seek to obtain a single average result from data collected from many—sometimes thousands of—individuals. An important way to respect neurodiversity would be to avoid assuming that average results correspond by default to healthy or normal states and that nonaverage results are indicative of unhealthy or abnormal states.
“Neurohype” and neuroessentialism
Exaggeration of advances in or consequences of neuroscience and neurotechnology—often referred to by experts as “neurohype”—is a central concern of neuroethicists, who are faced with the forward-looking task of anticipating potential challenges to neuroscientific research. The tendency toward neurohype, particularly in the popular media, tends to presuppose a “neuroessentialist” perspective, according to which a person’s essence or identity is based solely in the brain. (Such a perspective is presupposed in popular speculation regarding the possibility of “mind uploading,” or the transfer to a computer or other machine of a detailed, digitally formatted map of the neural connections within a human brain, which presumably would capture an individual’s thoughts, emotions, and memories and could be used to recreate conscious experience.) An influential view taken in response to this position, known as embodied cognition, holds that the body, as well as a person’s social and environmental interactions, plays an important role in cognition and is consequently fundamental to any adequate cognitive theory.
Implications in different domains
The relevance or importance of the ethical implications of neuroscience and neurotechnology vary depending upon the area of interest being considered. In the clinical realm—in which neuroethics converges intensely with bioethics—the most prevalent issues are related to informed consent and the autonomy, identity, and privacy of patients.
However, as neurotechnology has gained more relevance in other fields, neuroethicists have also been discussing nonclinical questions, especially the following:
- Consumption: The use of neurotechnology as a market-research tool (so-called “neuromarketing”) and the professionally unsupervised sale of direct-to-consumer neurotechnologies raise concerns about the privacy of brain data and consumer safety. (Examples of the former include the lab-based use of functional magnetic resonance imaging [fMRI], electroencephalograms [EEGs], eye tracking, biometrics, and facial coding to gauge, among other things, consumers’ level of engagement, focus of attention, and emotional responses to particular products or marketing techniques. Examples of the latter include headsets for creating EEGs and transcranial direct current stimulation [tDCS] devices, designed to stimulate particular areas of the brain by passing an electric current between electrodes worn on opposite sides of the head.)
- Criminal law: Since neurotechnology is employed to obtain evidence in courts and is considered a potentially powerful means of moral enhancement and of predicting recidivism, neuroethicists have to deal with issues related to defendants’ and incarcerated individuals’ mental privacy and sense of self, as well as their exposure to coercive uses of these technologies (see below Neuroscience and the law).
- Defense and national security: The potential applications of neurotechnologies as military weapons and as surveillance tools for national security purposes create concerns about eventual misuses that could breach civil liberties such as privacy, freedom of conscience, equality under the law, the right to a fair trial, and the right against self-incrimination. Examples of such technologies include MRIs used to create identifying “brainprints,” or maps of cortical folds unique to each individual, and the measurements of various types of brain signals as identifying “brain fingerprints.”
- Work and education: Surveillance and privacy concerns are also central in cases where neurotechnologies are used to monitor the attention and fatigue levels of schoolchildren and employees.
The neuroscience of ethics
The study of the neurobiological bases of freedom, ethics, and morality is crucial to understanding humans as moral individuals and can help shape ethical theories. The neuroscience of ethics is thus another central research topic in neuroethics.
One of the most important milestones in this subject area was a series of experiments on free will conducted by the American neurologist Benjamin Libet (1916–2007) in the 1980s. In these experiments, the study subjects performed several voluntary movements of their hands while reporting when exactly they experienced the desire to move. Using EEGs, Libet’s team discovered an electrical change in the brain—a so-called “readiness potential”—that occurred between 350 and 850 milliseconds before the participants became aware of their wish to move. These findings were taken to show that voluntary actions originate unconsciously. Subsequent Libet-style studies performed with different methodologies (such as brain imaging and depth electrodes) reached the same conclusion.
Although Libet himself defended the idea that free will can still intervene by vetoing unconsciously generated actions, his work and several other empirical studies have served as the basis on which many researchers argue that free will does not exist. The book The Illusion of Conscious Will (2002), by the Canadian-American psychologist Daniel M. Wegner (1948–2013), is one of the most prominent works to defend this position. However, various counterarguments have been suggested, among which the following stand out:
- The complex design of the Libet-style experiments conditioned the subjects’ decisions, because they had to make spontaneous movements and, at the same time, be aware of when exactly they wanted to do so. In other words, the experimental design suggests either that the subjects might have inexactly reported the moments at which they were aware of their desire to move or that the subjects’ movements might not have been as spontaneous as the experimenters assumed (or both).
- The actions performed—for example, hand movements—were arbitrary and impulsive processes, which are very different from other behaviors relevant to the notion of free will (such as actions resulting from prior deliberation).
In light of this controversy and other contested questions in the field, there is far from a consensus on whether neuroscience has proven the nonexistence of free will and, by extension, moral responsibility.
Additionally, since the beginning of the 21st century, neuroscience has contributed interesting studies of the neurobiological basis of moral behavior. One example is a prominent—yet disputed—brain-imaging study, “An fMRI Investigation of Emotional Engagement in Moral Judgment” (2001), by the American psychologist Joshua D. Greene and his colleagues, which concluded that human judgment in the face of a moral dilemma depends to a large extent on the person’s degree of emotional involvement.
Neuroscience and the law
Neurolaw
The neuroscience of ethics has important implications for the social sciences. Neuroscientific research has probably exerted greater influence on the study of law than on any other social science, apart from psychology. Such influence is reflected in the recent emergence of a specific branch of neuroethics known as “neurolaw”—that is, the application of neuroscientific findings to the realm of legal justice and especially to criminal law. Some of the most pressing questions in this growing field are the following:
- What implications does the existence (or nonexistence) of free will have for attributing criminal responsibility to an individual? Were it to be established that free will does not exist, would it make sense to continue maintaining a penal system based on punishment?
- Neuroscientific findings obtained from defendants, victims, and witnesses can be applied as evidence in court. These include evidence of brain injury or malfunction, identification of addictions, and lie detection. How accurate and reliable are these findings? Is it ethically permissible to use findings obtained without the subject’s consent in court?
- According to a methodology called “neuroprediction,” it is possible to use brain imaging neurotechnologies to assess an incarcerated individual’s risk of criminal recidivism. The results of these tests can influence decisions about parole or the length of prison sentences. Would it ever be justifiable to keep a presumed recidivist in prison for a crime that has not yet been committed?
- Mounting evidence shows that the human brain—especially the areas related to decision making—is not fully developed until a person is more than 20 years old. Should states revise their minimum ages of criminal responsibility and reform their juvenile justice systems in light of this evidence?
- Some researchers defend the idea of using neurotechnologies to morally improve antisocial individuals by modulating their levels of aggressiveness or empathy. Is moral enhancement morally acceptable?
- What is the degree of responsibility that can be attributed to a person who uses a brain-computer interface (BCI)? Does it make sense to consider some form of “shared” legal or moral responsibility between humans and machines?
Neurorights
The study of law has also been influenced by the ethics of neuroscience and neurotechnology, particularly as it relates to fundamental legal and human rights. Debates concerning this topic began with pioneering proposals by the American lawyer Richard G. Boire and the American writing instructor Wrye Sententia to explore the concept of cognitive liberty, which Sententia defined in 2004 (in her journal article “Neuroethical Considerations: Cognitive Liberty and Converging Technologies for Improving Human Cognition”) as “every person’s fundamental right to think independently, to use the full spectrum of his or her mind, and to have autonomy over his or her own brain chemistry.” She suggested that cognitive liberty should serve as the basis for expanding the right to freedom of thought in response to the novel ethical challenges related to neurotechnology.
A decade later the idea of revising the existing human rights framework to face these challenges evolved into so-called “neurorights” proposals, which included additional rights to cognitive liberty, mental privacy, personal identity (i.e., the preservation of an individual’s sense of psychological continuity), mental integrity, fair access to enhancement neurotechnologies, and protection against AI bias (i.e., the generally unintentional incorporation of biases based on gender, race, age, or other factors into the design of algorithms used in AI systems involved in neurotechnology). Neurorights can be understood either as the result of updates to existing human rights (as in Sententia’s approach) or as brand new rights. The latter conception has been the target of several criticisms, especially regarding the danger of inflation—that is, the conversion of any morally desirable aspiration into a right—which, it has been argued, would make human rights lose their relevance and effectiveness.
A few years after their introduction, neurorights notably attracted the attention of policymakers, which led to bills and even proposed constitutional amendments in various countries such as Chile, Brazil, and Argentina. Regional organizations also brought neurorights into their agendas—as shown, for example, by the Inter-American Declaration of Principles on Neurosciences, Neurotechnologies, and Human Rights (2023), issued by the Organization of American States, and the Model Law on Neurorights for Latin America and the Caribbean (2023), issued by the Latin American Parliament. In addition, a global milestone arrived in 2022, when the United Nations Human Rights Council unanimously adopted a resolution requesting its advisory committee to write a report “on the impact, opportunities and challenges of neurotechnology with regard to the promotion and protection of all human rights.”
Cultural diversity in neuroethics
In 2020 the largest neuroethics professional association in the world—the International Neuroethics Society (INS)—consisted of 300 members from 28 countries. Despite its global membership, 60 percent of its members were based in the United States and nearly 85 percent lived in English-speaking or western European countries. As of 2023 not many national centers, organizations, or foundations outside these countries have dedicated specific efforts to this discipline; the Mexican Association of Neuroethics (AMNE), the Italian Society for Neuroethics (SINe), and the International Centre for Neuroscience and Ethics (CINET) in Spain were three prominent exceptions.
These data make clear one of the pending challenges of neuroethics just 18 years after its birth: the inclusion of diverse cultural perspectives in its global discussions. While diversity and inclusion are desirable values in themselves, integrating different cultural approaches becomes particularly essential for a discipline that studies universal issues such as consciousness, privacy, identity, free will, criminal responsibility, and human rights. Voices from different cultural contexts can contribute novel points of view in order to help fulfill the aspiration of neuroethics to reach consensus views that can promote the moral well-being of humanity.