One of the best known of all puzzles is the Fifteen Puzzle, which Sam Loyd the elder claimed to have invented about 1878, though modern scholars have documented earlier inventors. It is also known as the Boss Puzzle, Gem Puzzle, and Mystic Square. It became popular all over Europe almost at once. It consists essentially of a shallow square tray that holds 15 small square counters numbered from 1 to 15, and one square blank space. With the 15 squares initially placed in random order and with the blank space in the lower right-hand corner, the puzzle is to rearrange them in numerical order by sliding only, with the blank space ending up back in the lower right-hand corner. It may overwhelm the reader to learn that there are more than 20,000,000,000,000 possible different arrangements that the pieces (including the blank space) can assume. But in 1879 two American mathematicians proved that only one-half of all possible initial arrangements, or about 10,000,000,000,000, admitted of a solution. The mathematical analysis is as follows. Basically, no matter what path it takes, as long as it ends its journey in the lower right-hand corner of the tray, any numeral must pass through an even number of boxes. In the normal position of the squares (Figure 17A), regarded row by row from left to right, each number is larger than all the preceding numbers; i.e., no number precedes any number smaller than itself. In any other than the normal arrangement, one or more numbers will precede others smaller than themselves. Every such instance is called an inversion. For example, in the sequence 9, 5, 3, 4, the 9 precedes three numbers smaller than itself and the 5 precedes two numbers smaller than itself, making a total of five inversions. If the total number of all the inversions in a given arrangement is even, the puzzle can be solved by bringing the squares back to the normal arrangement; if the total number of inversions is odd, the puzzle cannot be solved. Thus, in Figure 17B there are two inversions, and the puzzle can be solved; in Figure 17C there are five inversions, and the puzzle has no solution. Theoretically, the puzzle can be extended to a tray of m × n spaces with (mn − 1) numbered counters.

The Tower of Hanoi

The puzzle of the Tower of Hanoi is widely believed to have been invented in 1883 by the French mathematician Édouard Lucas, though his role in its invention has been disputed. Ever popular, made of wood or plastic, it still can be found in toy shops. It consists essentially of three pegs fastened to a stand and of eight circular disks, each having a hole in the centre. The disks, all of different radii, are initially placed (see Figure 18) on one of the pegs, with the largest disk on the bottom and the smallest on top; no disk rests upon one smaller than itself. The task is to transfer the individual disks from one peg to another so that no disk ever rests on one smaller than itself, and, finally, to transfer the tower; i.e., all the disks in their proper order, from their original peg to one of the other pegs. It can be shown that for a tower of n disks, there will be required 2ⁿ − 1 transfers of individual disks to shift the tower completely to another peg. Thus for 8 disks, the puzzle requires 2⁸ − 1, or 255 transfers. If the original “needle” (peg) was a tower with 64 disks, the number of transfers would be 2⁶⁴ − 1, or 18,446,744,073,709,551,615; this is exactly the same number required to fill an 8 × 8 checkerboard with grains of wheat, 1 on the first square, 2 on the second, 4 on the next, then 8, 16, 32, etc.

Polyominoes

The term polyomino was introduced in 1953 as a jocular extension of the word domino. A polyomino is a simply connected set of equal-sized squares, each joined to at least one other along an edge. The simpler polyomino shapes are shown in Figure 19A. Somewhat more fascinating are the pentominoes, of which there are exactly 12 forms (Figure 19B). Asymmetrical pieces, which have different shapes when they are flipped over, are counted as one.

The number of distinct polyominoes of any order is a function of the number of squares in each, but, as yet, no general formula has been found. It has been shown that there are 35 types of hexominoes and 108 types of heptominoes, if the dubious heptomino with an interior “hole” is included.

Recreations with polyominoes include a wide variety of problems in combinatorial geometry, such as forming desired shapes and specified designs, covering a chessboard with polyominoes in accordance with prescribed conditions, etc. Two illustrations may suffice.

The 35 hexominoes, having a total area of 210 squares, would seem to admit of arrangement into a rectangle 3 × 70, 5 × 42, 6 × 35, 7 × 30, 10 × 21, or 14 × 15; however, no such rectangle can be formed.

Can the 12 pentominoes, together with one square tetromino, form an 8 × 8 checkerboard? A solution of the problem was shown around 1935. It is not known how many solutions there are, but it has been estimated to be at least 1,000. In 1958, by use of a computer, it was shown that there are 65 solutions in which the square tetromino is exactly in the centre of the checkerboard.