The Italian Renaissance, sometimes dated from the death of Petrarch in 1374, is generally seen as a break with medieval culture, but this was not entirely true, especially for the papacy, which witnessed the further development of many medieval themes. Notably, the continued decline of the political power of the Holy See was accelerated by the Great Schism (Western Schism; 1378–1417), in which rival factions of cardinals elected popes in both Rome and Avignon. The schism erupted as a result of the growing desire, voiced by Petrarch and by St. Catherine of Siena, among others, to see the papacy return to Rome. Gregory XI’s (1370–78) attempt at this led to further problems for the papacy and the outbreak of schism. His successor, Urban VI (1378–89), acted in such a high-handed fashion that he alienated a considerable number of cardinals, who elected a new pope and returned to Avignon.
Although Christians were divided in their loyalties, all of them recognized the dire nature of the situation. Theologians responded with the doctrine of conciliarism, which holds that an ecumenical council has greater authority than the pope and may depose him. Although the conciliar movement ultimately collapsed under the weight of its own success, it did help to resolve the crisis. In 1417 the Council of Constance ended the schism by deposing or accepting the resignations of three rival popes (one had been elected by the Council of Pisa in 1409).
Under Pope Nicholas V (1447–55) there was a revival of classical studies, which contributed to the development of humanism and the Renaissance. Nicholas also envisioned the rebuilding of St. Peter’s Basilica and the papal library. The vain and ostentatious Pope Paul II (1464–71), who had a virtual mania for gems and collectibles, built the magnificent Palazzo Venezia in Rome. His successor, Pope Sixtus IV (1471–84), proceeded with the beautification of the city.
The secular outlook of the papacy reached a high point with the election of Rodrigo Borgia as Pope Alexander VI (1492–1503) and continued under Pope Julius II (1503–13), who proved a great patron of the arts. In many ways Julius, known as “the Terrible,” proved a better prince than a priest because of his love of war and political intrigue. He was followed by Pope Leo X (1513–21), who supposedly quipped upon his accession, “God has given us the papacy, now let us enjoy it.” During the 15th and 16th centuries, the popes created a great Christian capital and patronized artists such as Raphael, Michelangelo, and Leonardo da Vinci. As Renaissance Rome became a center of art, science, and politics, its religious role declined; thus began the steps that provoked the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century.
Small wonder that these Renaissance popes, most of whom were more involved in political and financial alliances than in pastoral work, proved unable to respond effectively to the crisis. Only later did the papacy attempt to reform the church by calling the Council of Trent (1545–63), instituting the so-called Counter-Reformation, in which the Roman Catholic Church attempted to respond to the Protestant Reformation by purging itself of the abuses and ambiguities that had opened the way to revolt and then embarking upon recovery of the schismatic branches of Western Christianity. The theological and ecclesiastical decisions of this council largely determined the shape of the Roman Catholic Church until the second half of the 20th century.
The early modern papacy: from 1566 to 1774
The popes of this period found their programs challenged by the growing power of the nation-states of Europe. Nevertheless, there were some positive developments, including reform of the College of Cardinals and the founding of new orders such as the Theatines (1524), the Barnabites (1530), the Capuchins (1619), and, perhaps most important of all, the Society of Jesus, the Jesuits (1540). These orders played a crucial role in the revitalization of the church and in the growing influence of the papacy. They enabled the early modern popes—particularly Pius V (1566–72), Sixtus V (1585–90), Paul V (1605–21), Innocent XI (1676–89), and Benedict XIV (1740–58)—to proceed with their policy of evangelization.
Although the Jesuit order was founded in the 16th century by St. Ignatius of Loyola, the first Jesuit pope was not elected until 2013, when Archbishop Jorge Mario Bergoglio of Buenos Aires ascended to the papacy as Pope Francis.
Further, the establishment of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith in 1622 demonstrated the importance of the papacy in the missionary movement. The papacy also attempted to implement the policies of the Council of Trent but encountered political and diplomatic obstacles, as well as the reality that Christendom remained divided into competing states, whose religious aspirations were often subordinate to dynastic and national ambitions.
Determined to continue the campaign against heresy, the popes of the Counter-Reformation did so inconsistently, displaying an ambiguous attitude toward modernization. Although they opposed the increasing infringement on papal prerogatives by national governments, they embraced the idea of structural modernization, which led to greater centralization in the church around the papacy. The 18th-century Enlightenment created a climate hostile to faith in general and to the papacy in particular. Philosophers and political leaders in France, Spain, Portugal, Naples, and elsewhere launched a two-pronged attack on the political and religious programs of the papacy, focusing much of their opposition on the Jesuits, which Pope Clement XIV (1769–74) was compelled to suppress in 1773. To make matters worse, the centralization of the papacy was opposed by movements such as Gallicanism (in France), Febronianism (in Germany), and Josephism (in Austria and Italy), each of which championed national ecclesiastical autonomy from Rome.
The modern papacy: from 1775 to the 21st century
The revolutionary age in Europe, which opened with the French Revolution, continued the attack on the papacy. It provoked the capture of two popes by the French, Pius VI (1775–99) and Pius VII (1800–23), and the creation of a Roman Republic (1798–99), which replaced the Papal States. Although the conservative powers reestablished the Papal States at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), the papacy now confronted Italian nationalism and the Risorgimento (Italian: “Rising Again”), the 19th-century movement of Italian unification, which prompted a counter-Risorgimento on the part of the papacy.
Why hasn’t there been an American pope?
Pope Pius IX (1846–78), the longest-reigning pope, began his career as a reformer but became increasingly conservative in his outlook; his Syllabus of Errors (1864) listed 80 of the “principal errors of our time” and set the church on a conservative course centered on the papacy. The alignment of the papacy with conservative political forces worked to undermine liberal and modernizing influences within the church and contributed to the loss of the Papal States to the new Kingdom of Italy in 1870.
Divested of its remaining temporal power, the papacy increasingly relied on its spiritual or teaching authority, proclaiming papal infallibility and espousing ultramontanism (the idea that the pope is the absolute ruler of the church). Thus, in 1870 the First Vatican Council officially defined as a matter of faith the absolute primacy of the pope and his infallibility when pronouncing on “matters of faith and morals.”
Subsequently, Pope Leo XIII (1878–1903) condemned Americanism (a movement among American Catholics that sought to adapt the church to modern civilization), and Pope Pius X (1903–14) condemned Modernism (a movement that employed modern historical and critical methods to interpret scripture and Catholic teaching and that also challenged papal centralization). The 1929 Lateran Treaty with the fascist government of Italy created the minuscule state of Vatican City and granted the papacy formal temporal sovereignty over the territory.
Leo XIII’s papal encyclical Rerum novarum (1891) laid the basis for Catholic social teaching, a doctrinal program that focuses on principles such as human dignity, solidarity, and the common good.
Despite the social program initiated by Pope Leo XIII’s Rerum novarum (“Of New Things”) in 1891, suspicion of liberal ideas and modern culture persisted in Rome until the Second Vatican Council (also called Vatican II), called in 1962 by Pope John XXIII (1958–63) and continued until 1965 by Paul VI (1963–78). John sought an aggiornamento (Italian: “bringing up to date”) to modernize the church, and in part he succeeded. Although many conservative Catholics believed that the council went too far, especially in terminating the requirement of the traditional Latin mass in favor of masses celebrated in local, vernacular languages, the theological and organizational changes made at Vatican II significantly revitalized the church and opened it to reform, ecumenical dialogue, and increased participation of bishops, clergy, and laity.
Internationally, the papacy assumed a more dynamic role following the unsuccessful attempts at mediation by Pope Benedict XV (1914–22) and Pope Pius XII (1939–58) during World War I and World War II. At the close of the 20th century the prospect of Pius XII’s canonization renewed the controversy over his neutrality during World War II and his failure to denounce the Holocaust more forcefully and openly, a fact that his critics dubbed the “silence.” Paul VI assumed a more interventionist policy, speaking out on a number of issues and traveling worldwide. He also promulgated the landmark document Nostra aetate (“In Our Age”) in 1965, which rejected the traditional accusation that the Jews killed Christ, recognized the legitimacy of Judaism and Islam, and condemned antisemitism.
For more details on the papal election process, see papal conclave.
The internationalization of the College of Cardinals under John XXIII increased its numbers beyond the 70 set by Sixtus V in 1586. In response, Paul VI imposed new regulations specifying that cardinals who are age 80 or older cannot vote for a pope and limiting the number of voting cardinals to 120. Although John Paul II (1978–2005) created more cardinals than any of his predecessors, he confirmed the number of voting cardinals at 120 in his decree Universi Dominici Gregis (“Shepherd of the Lord’s Whole Flock,” 1995). In 1996 John Paul issued a set of rules governing papal elections, one of which provided that under certain circumstances the traditionally required majority of two-thirds plus one could be replaced by a simple majority. This rule was repealed by his successor, Benedict XVI (2005–13), in 2007.
The pontificate of John Paul II, one of the longest in history, left a profound mark on the church and the papacy. A charismatic and beloved figure, John Paul traveled more than all other popes combined, played a crucial role in the collapse of communism in Poland and the rest of eastern Europe, canonized numerous new saints, and made great strides toward interfaith dialogue with non-Christians. He established formal and full diplomatic relations with Israel and sought greater reconciliation with the Jews and Judaism; he was the first pope to worship in a synagogue, and he made a historic pilgrimage to Jerusalem, during which he prayed at the Western Wall. However, he retained traditional positions on a number of issues, including the ordination of women, clerical marriage, homosexuality, birth control, and abortion, and he was implacably opposed to liberation theology, a movement that arose in Latin America and stressed the preferential option for the poor. John Paul II felt its principles were uncomfortably close to Marxism.
John Paul’s efforts to bridge the gap with other Christian churches met with only limited success. His stance against the use of condoms to prevent sexually transmitted diseases was criticized by human rights workers and some politicians for its perceived contribution to the spread of AIDS in Africa. The global scandal of the 1990s and early 2000s surrounding the church’s handling of numerous cases of sexual abuse by priests prompted some critics of the pope to further question the wisdom of his stance on sexual issues. This controversy became part of a long-standing debate, joined by Catholics and non-Catholics alike, about whether the church had accommodated too much or too little to the secular, modern age.
The 2005 election of conservative German theologian and cardinal Joseph Ratzinger as Pope Benedict XVI did not immediately resolve this debate. Benedict continued his predecessor’s commitment to ecumenical and interfaith outreach. Yet, while Vatican II proclaimed that the church should engage with and interpret its mission in response to contemporary cultural mores, Benedict’s homilies, public addresses, and encyclicals—the latter including Deus caritas est (2006; “God Is Love”) and Spe salvi (2007; “Saved by Hope”)—offered instead a sharp critique of the “foundations of the modern age” and warned against the “dangers” of secularism. In 2013 he became the first pope to resign since Gregory XII in 1415, citing health reasons.
Francis (2013–25), the first South American and the first Jesuit to become pope, was elected after Benedict resigned. Francis offered hope to clergy and laity alike that the church would confront the scandals and controversies of the previous decades. However, conservatives objected to Francis’s willingness to depart from tradition in certain settings—e.g., by washing the feet of two young women, including one Muslim, in a Maundy Thursday ritual that had traditionally excluded women. Francis issued a decree in 2016 that revised the Roman Missal concerning Holy Week observances to allow the inclusion of women and girls in the foot-washing ritual.
Other reforms Francis made to the church included limiting the celebration of the traditional Latin mass (for which Benedict XVI had made some concessions to traditionalist Catholics), restructuring the Roman Curia and the Vatican’s finances to allow for more transparency, and preaching tolerance of homosexuals. In particular, his second encyclical, Laudato si’ (“Praise Be to You”; 2015), addressing climate change and integral ecology, had a profound impact on the global church. The clergy abuse crisis remained an issue of concern during Francis’s papacy, and he delivered apologies on behalf of the church to survivors in countries such as Ireland and Canada. Francis also advocated for the rights of migrants throughout his papacy.
On May 8, 2025, Robert Francis Prevost was elected the first American pope, succeeding Francis. He took the name Leo XIV, and his first words as Pope were “Peace be with all of you.”
Frank J. Coppa The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica