Later theological and philosophical doctrines

After the death of Muhammad, the expansion of Islam brought it into contact with the world at large, and a Muslim culture (involving science, philosophy, and literature) emerged, partially as a result of the Muslim acquisition of Byzantine culture. Christians and Jews became advisers and officials in Muslim courts. Christian philosophers introduced Muslim students to the works of the 4th-century-bce Greek philosopher Aristotle and to Neoplatonism, to theories about human nature, to theology, to the nature of existence, and to cosmology. Philosophical discussions about God, however, leave little or no room for prophets, and the savant displaced the prophet as the one proclaiming the will of God. As religious leaders, the savants were the keepers of Sunnah (the life and habits of the Prophet) and Hadith (traditions about the Prophet’s utterances and actions), which are supplements to the Qurʾān. Study of Hadith and Sunnah contributed to the beginning of scholarly and scholastic activities in Islam, from which study emerged the Muslim system of duties and obligations (fiqh). Muslim theology began in the formulation of the doctrine of the general consensus (ijmāʿ), which was used to determine what was genuine Sunnah. None ventured to question that Allah was the only God, that Muhammad was his prophetic messenger, or that the Qurʾān was Allah’s word; to have done so would have been tantamount to admitting that one was not a Muslim.

Scholastic philosophy was first introduced openly into Muslim theology by al-Ashʿarī (10th century), who was the first to give Islam a systematic exposition. Another theologian, Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna), considered prophecy still to be a fundamental aspect of Islam, but, for him, a prophet was not the spirit-possessed spokesman of God but rather an intelligent, intuitive man whose insight results in a place of leadership in society. Another philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroës), denied the belief that man’s knowledge could ever be the same as God’s knowledge; he also denied doctrines of predestination and corporeal resurrection, both of which were aspects of Muhammad’s message.

Prophetic figures after Muhammad

The fact that Muhammad was considered to be the final prophet did not end prophecy in Islam. After Muhammad’s death, several seers proclaimed themselves his successors. Muhammad had designated no one to succeed himself and had left no sons. Abū Bakr, the father of Muhammad’s wife ʿAʾishah, was chosen caliph (Arabic khalīfah, “substitute, deputy”), but that did not discourage others from claiming that they were called of Allah and thus trying to lead their own tribes as Muhammad had led his. Such movements were crushed by force, which contributed to the rapid expansion of Islam.

Some prophets claimed that they were a long-awaited saviour-deliverer (mahdī, “restorer of the faith”) and even gained some following beyond their own local tribes. Muḥammad Aḥmad ibn al-Sayyid ʿAbd Allāh of the Sudan preached a holy war against Egypt (1881) and fought and defeated the British governor-general Charles George Gordon at Khartoum in 1885. In India (Punjab), Mirza Ghulan Aḥmad claimed that he had received the spirit of Jesus and that he was a prophet-messiah. He recorded his revelations from Allah in a book. Considering himself to be the Christ to his generation, he set out to reform Islam by liberalizing strict orthodoxy, yet avoiding the extremes of the pro-Western movements of his time. He gained a large following among middle-class Muslims but was soon disowned by orthodox Islam. His sect, the Aḥmadiyyah, though small in numbers, has through its missionary activities spread over much of the world.

Prophetic movements and figures in the Eastern religions

Buddhist literature contains predictions of the buddha Maitreya, who will come as a kind of saviour-messiah to inaugurate a paradisaical age on earth. The historical Buddha himself (flourished c. 5th century bce) mentioned that prediction.

Among the Hindus, the Purana literature (“old history”) contains prophetic passages, but those are to be understood as predictions after the event has occurred. Hindu religion has had many prophetic reformers, and the tribes of India, in their struggle for freedom, produced prophets who combined the ideas of religious freedom with the hope of political and social freedom. The Oraons, a tribe in Chota Nagpur, saw several prophets (bhagats) appear about the turn of the 20th century. Their intent was to free their people from foreign culture and political rule, returning to the older Hindu culture and religion. Such efforts often led to armed rebellion and ended in disaster.

In ancient China, divination was commonplace. One Confucian book involving divination, the Yijing (“Classic of Changes”), may have been connected with pre-Han Confucianism (before the 3rd century bce). Classical Confucian tradition, however, emphasized the importance of rational process over inspiration and divination. Autocratic governments eliminated any such revolutionary, prophet-led movements as occurred in India, and any prophecy against the establishment was regarded as heretical. Inspired prophecy found little place in the official state religion. That situation did not rule out prophecy in folk religion, in which prophets appeared and promised their followers the good life in this world and in the next. In modern times, some of those movements became religio-political movements, as when Hong Xiuquan, an ecstatic epileptic noble of the middle 19th century, started a movement called the Taiping (“Great Peace”), a sect claiming that it was establishing the correct political order anew. Hong’s movement—perhaps under the impact of Protestant missions—was quite austere, and it opposed magic, idols, and belief in spirits. He considered the New Testament to be authoritative for his new sect, and its rapid growth—aided by connections with other revolutionary movements—soon resulted in a genuine danger to the Manchu ruler of China. The Taiping Rebellion was crushed by Gordon in 1864.

Diviners and shamans (male and female) are well represented in old Japanese Shintō. Japanese shamanism, which was closely related to Korean shamanism, often played a role in political disturbances and still does. Among old Japanese Buddhist sects is that founded by Nichiren (13th century ce), a prophetic enthusiast, religious revivalist, and zealous nationalist who taught that the Buddha’s dharma (teaching) would be regenerated and spread from Japan to the rest of the world. In the Shintō revival movements of the 18th and 19th centuries, inspired persons with eschatological concepts founded movements that became messianic in character, and drew many of their followers from among the farmers, many of whom had practiced a Buddhist folk piety.