Victor Turner and anti-structure

From the 1960s through the early 1980s, the classic structural functionalist view of rites of passage was challenged and revised. The charge was led by the British anthropologist Victor Turner, who acknowledged the contribution of structural functionalism to the study of rites of passage and of the broader category of ritual while pointing out its limitations. In his study of African rites of passage, The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure (1969), Turner revealed the drama and flux of everyday social life and highlighted the agency of rites in effecting social change, which he considered to be their fundamental role. Building upon van Gennep’s observation that rites of passage and other rituals are liminal in that they temporarily extricate participants from their social statuses, Turner argued that rites of passage are antithetical to existing social structure and “subjunctive” because they invite new possibilities. Rites enable participants to experiment with alternative social relations or to invent new ones.

Participants in rites of passage may also engage in role reversal. Among the Ndembu people of Zimbabwe, for example, the crown-elect takes on the role of a commoner. In many cases participants also experience one another in spontaneous and direct ways as equals, a phenomenon that Turner labeled “communitas.” He observed that adolescent Ndembu males undergoing ritual initiation into manhood experience a communitarian bond while they are separated from their tribe. Liminality and communitas, which together constitute “ritual anti-structure,” call attention to the arbitrariness and artificiality of social structure and social norms.

A second role of rites of passage, according to Turner, is that they direct the attention of a society’s members to their community. Turner understood ritual and social structure to stand in a dialectical relationship. Ritual, including rites of passage, emerges in response to structure and its limitations. Structure has the positive quality of organizing a society so it can meet its material needs, yet it also draws distinctions between human beings. Although structure is a basic human need, according to Turner, so are directness and equality. Ritual’s fundamental purpose, then, is to infuse everyday social statuses and roles with communitas, thus putting them in the service of human community and the common good.

Turner supported this thesis with another example from his study of the rite of passage for newly elected Ndembu kings. The rite in which the crown-elect, en route to his elevation as king, assumes the role of a commoner includes ritual humiliation. He is stripped of his royal stature and given lowly status before he is exalted. Humiliation serves to remind the future king that his office is designed to serve the people and their common needs rather than his own self-interest. In Turner’s view, rituals that support the structural status quo were at one time “corralled” by those with a vested interest in maintaining existing social relations. The social and ritual authorities who are concerned with maintaining the status quo often attempt to control rites of passage, which proscribe social statuses and identities in the face of changes and crises that may alter or challenge the standing social order. In such cases, ritual’s liminal, subversive, and innovative capacity is “circumscribed.”

Later theories

Many scholars who emphasized the functional significance of rites of passage tended to reduce them—and religion in general—to their social utility; others gave primacy to it. These reductionist approaches, according to some critics, often minimized or ignored the significance of the symbolic content of religious rites of passage and of religion itself. The development of religious studies as an academic discipline in the early 20th century helped to draw attention to the existential and philosophical significance of religious beliefs and symbols for adherents of religions. Scholars of religious studies have emphasized the symbolic content of religious rites while examining belief systems and other symbolic dimensions in historical and social contexts. In a similar vein, the 20th-century American anthropologist Barbara Myerhoff and others have called attention to the personal dimension of rites of passage and to the individual’s own experience of the human life cycle. These scholars of religion approach religious belief and experience as phenomena that have significance and are worthy of study in their own right. In their attempt to understand religion from the point of view of practitioners, some scholars have undergone ritual initiation into the religious community or group that is the subject of their study. The contemporary American anthropologist Karen McCarthy Brown, for example, was initiated into the ranks of Haitian Vodou priestesses.

Some contemporary scholars of religion have attempted to reinvent rites of passage for the many individuals who feel that the established religions of their societies do not address their needs. The American ritual theorist Ronald Grimes, who founded the interdisciplinary field of ritual studies, has attempted to transcend detached scientific analysis by encouraging individuals to cultivate rites of passage and other rituals that would address existential crises in their own lives and enable them to discover personal meaning. Grimes created new rites for his own life and encouraged his university students to do the same; most reported that the new rites were more effective than traditional rites in helping them come to terms with life-changing events.