Theology and practice of sacraments in Christianity
- Key People:
- John Williamson Nevin
Though the widespread conception of the sacramental principle is an ancient heritage, in all probability going back before the dawn of civilization, it acquired in Christianity a unique significance. There it became the fundamental system and institution for the perpetuation of the union of God and man in the person of Jesus Christ through the visible organization and constitution of the church, which was viewed as the mystical body of Christ.
In the 12th century the number of sacraments of the Western Christian church was narrowed by the theologian and bishop Peter Lombard to seven: baptism, confirmation, the Eucharist (the Lord’s Supper), penance, holy orders, matrimony, and extreme unction. This enumeration was accepted by St. Thomas Aquinas, the Council of Florence (1439), and the Council of Trent (1545–63). These rites were thus affirmed by the Roman Catholic Church as sacraments that were instituted by Christ. Protestant reformers of the 16th century accepted two or three sacraments as valid: baptism, the Lord’s Supper, and, in some fashion, penance. Eastern Orthodoxy also accepts the sevenfold enumeration. In addition to these, any ceremonial actions and objects related to sacraments that endow a person or thing with a sacred character have been designated “sacramental”; unlike those of dominical (i.e., Christ’s) institution, however, they are not thought to convey divine grace ex opere operato (“it works by itself”) or to confer an indelible character on the recipient. Sacramentals include the use of holy water, incense, vestments, candles, exorcisms, anointing and making the sign of the cross, fasting, abstinence, and almsgiving.
Baptism
Baptism, as the initial rite, took the place of circumcision in Judaism in which this ancient and primitive custom was the covenant sign and a legal injunction rather than a sacramental ordinance. Baptismal immersion in water was practiced in Judaism for some time before the fall of Jerusalem in ce 70, and it was adopted by John the Baptist (a Jewish prophet and cousin of Jesus Christ) as the principal sacrament in his messianic movement.
The purificatory lustration of John the Baptist, however, was transformed into the prototype of the Christian sacrament by the baptism of Jesus in the river Jordan and by the imagery of this event combined with the imagery of his death and resurrection. A distinction was made, however, between the water baptism of John and the Christian Spirit Baptism in the apostolic church. Under the influence of St. Paul, the Christian rite was given an interpretation in the terms of the mystery religions, and the catechumen (initiate instructed in the secrets of the faith) was identified with the death and Resurrection of Christ (Rom. 6:3–5; Gal. 3:12). The bestowal of the new life constituted a sacramental rebirth in the church in union with the risen Lord as its divine head.
Those who received baptism in early Christianity were adult converts. There is no scholarly consensus as to whether children, including infants, were baptized alongside their parents. By the 4th century the practice of infant baptism was universal.
Confirmation
With the development of infant Baptism, the regenerative initial sacrament was coupled with the charismatic apostolic laying on of hands as the seal of the Spirit in the rite of confirmation (Acts 8:14–17). By the 4th century, confirmation became a separate “unction” (rite using oil) administered by a bishop or, earlier and in the Eastern Church, by a priest to complete the sacramental baptismal grace already bestowed at birth or on some other previous occasion. At first, especially in the East, a threefold rite was performed consisting of Baptism, confirmation, and first communion; but in the West, where the consecration of the oil and the laying on of hands were confined to the episcopate, confirmation tended to become a separate event with the growth in the size of dioceses. It was not, however, until the 16th century that Baptism and confirmation were permanently separated. In England Queen Elizabeth I was confirmed when she was only three days old; and infant confirmation is still sometimes practiced in Spain. But the normal custom in Western Christendom has been for confirmation to be administered at or after the age of reason and to be the occasion for instruction in the faith, as in the case of the mystae in the Mysteries of Eleusis. But whether or not confirmation conveys a new gift of the Spirit or is the sealing of the same grace bestowed in Baptism, which is still debated, it has come to be regarded in some churches as conferring an indelible quality on the soul. Therefore, it cannot be repeated when it has once been validly performed as a sacrament.